
rfe PF nil 

Book M^S . 
GpigMU? i874 

COFXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 

I 



A GRAMMAR 



OF THE 






ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



WITH AN 



tnalgafe of ffy %txku% 

BY JOHN SrHART, LL.D., 

f I 

PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN 

THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY, LATE PRINCIPAL OF THE NEW JERSEY 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS 

ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ETC., ETC. 








PHILADELPHIA : 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 

17 North Seventh Street. 

1874. 



A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS 

ON THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

By JOHN S. HART, LL.D. 

Language-Lessons for Beginners. Li U~S 

English Grammar and Analysis. 

First Lessons in Composition. 

Composition and Rhetoric. 

A Short Course in Literature. 

A Manual of English Literature. 

A Manual of American Literature, 



\ 

)?1f 



£ 



&± *& 



\ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 



\t in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 4 



S^jg& J- FAG AN & SON, *] 

^P"<Ji - ELECTROTYPERS, PHILAD'A. fcJ / 

^. I^X J% 




CAXT0N PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO. 




Preface. 



o^o 



rpHE author, having in great measure rewritten his English 
^ Grammar, presents it once more to the consideration of the 
teachers of the country. The work, as now offered, is the result of 
long experience in the class-room, and of no little reading and study. 
The English language and its literature have been for many years 
the main subjects of the author's inquiry, and he has endeavored in 
this volume to give the results of his observations in the form which 
his experience as a teacher has convinced him to be the best adapted 
to the wants of the learner. 

The points aimed at have been twofold : 

First, to give some knowledge of grammar in general. This is the 
more necessary, as most of those who study English grammar study 
no other language, and have no other means of studying the laws of 
language as a means of expressing thought. 

Secondly, to set forth the forms and laws peculiar to the English 
language. The English has indeed been called, somewhat irrever- 
ently, " the grammarless tongue." Its inflections, it must be confessed, 
are meagre, as compared with those of the Latin and Greek. Such is 
the condition of almost every modern tongue. Yet our English has 
its idioms, as every foreigner learns to his cost, and is not entirely 
without its inflections. An accurate knowledge of these idioms and 
inflections is of incalculable value to every one who would be at home 
in the use of the language. 

There is an opinion widely prevalent among the teachers of classical 



IV PKEFACE. 

schools, that boys fitting for college have no need to study English 
grammar. From that opinion the author begs leave respectfully, but 
most earnestly, to dissent. If he mistakes not, a growing majority of 
those who are called upon to examine candidates for admission to 
college will bear him out in his position. The study of Latin and 
Greek gives indeed a knowledge of the grammar of those languages, 
and some knowledge of grammar in general, but it does not give a 
knowledge of English grammar. Does Latin grammar teach a boy 
our common rules for Spelling, which are a guide to the correct 
writing of not less than twenty thousand English words ? Does it 
teach him the origin, form, and uses of the English Possessive? 
Does it, to take one instance out of hundreds that might be named, 
teach him the syntax of the phrase " For David thy father's sake " ? 
Does it teach him the rules for the formation of the English Plural ? 
— the peculiarities of the Past Participle Active ? Does it not lead 
him into grave mistakes in regard to the forms and uses of the Eng- 
lish verb ? 

A word as to the method pursued. The author has endeavored to 
bear in mind that he was writing, not a treatise for the learned, but 
a text-book for learners. For such a book, — 

The first and most imperative demand is clearness, — clearness 
of arrangement, and clearness of expression. 

Next and hardly less imperative is the demand that the more and 
the less important should be carefully discriminated, and the differ- 
ence plainly set forth to the eye. 

A third imperative demand is that the rules, definitions, and other 
matter to be committed to memory, should be expressed with the 
utmost possible conciseness. 

A fourth requisite is that every rule and definition should be sup- 
ported and illustrated by a goodly array of apt practical examples. 
These are as necessary in teaching grammar as sums are in teaching 
arithmetic. 

How far these things have been secured is for the reader to judge. 

J. S. H. 

Princeton, N. J., June 26, 1874. 




PAGE 

Preface, ........... iii 

Introduction, .......... 9 

— W0ar^l5«>L*s — 

Part I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters generally, .......... 11 

Vowels, 13 

Consonants, .......... 14 

Words and Syllables, ......... 15 

Rules for Spelling, . 16 



Part II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Classification of Words, 



21 



I. Articles. 



Origin and Use of the Articles, . 
1* 



. 23 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



II. Nouns. 

PAGE 

Classification of Nouns, ........ 25 

Attributes of Nouns, . . . . . . . . .26 

1. Gender, ......... 27 

2. Number, ......... 30 

3. Person, . . . . . . . . .35 

4. Case, 3G 



III. Adjectives. 



True Character of Adjectives, 
Comparison of Adjectives, 



40 
41 



IV. Pronouns. 



True Character of Pronouns, 

1. Personal Pronouns, . 

2. Relative Pronouns, 

3. Adjective Pronouns, . 



V. Verbs 



True Character of the Verb, 
I. Attributes of Verbs, . 

1. Voice, 

2. Mood, .... 

3. Tense, 

4. Participles, 

5. Number and Person, 
IL Classes of Verbs, 

1. Transitive and Intransitive, 

2. Regular and Irregular, 

3. Impersonal, 

4. Defective, 

5. Auxiliary, . 
III. Conjugation of Verbs, 

The Verb To be, 
The Verb To love, 



VI. Adverbs 



Comparison of Adverbs, . 
Classes of Adverbs, 



44 
45 
48 
53 



55 

56 
56 
57 
58 
62 
64 
64 
64 
66 
71 
72 
72 
74 
74 
78 



87 



VII. Conjunctions. 

Character and Uses of Conjunctions, . 



VIII. Prepositions. 

Character and Uses of Prepositions, 



91 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



IX. Interjections. 
Words used as different Parts of Speech, 



PAGE 

. 94 



Derivation of Words. 



1. Prefixes of Saxon Origin, 

2. Prefixes of Latin Origin, 

3. Prefixes of Greek Origin, 

4. Afl&xes, . 



96 
97 



99 



Part III. 



o»<o 



SENTENCES. 
I. Syntax. 



Order of the Kules in Syntax, .... 

1. The Nominative, 

2. The Verb, ..... 

3. The Objective Case and the Verb, 

4. The Objective Case and the Preposition, 

5. The Possessive Case, 

6. Apposition, . 

7. Case after the Verb To be, 

8. The Pronoun, 

9. The Article, 

10. The Adjective, 

11. The Adjective Pronoun, 

12. The Participle, 

13. The Adverb, 

14. The Infinitive Mood, 

15. The Conjunction, 

16. The Interjection, . 
Miscellaneous Exercises, 



102 
103 
106 
112 
115 
120 
124 
126 
128 
133 
136 
139 
141 
144 
147 
149 
153 
153 



II. Analysis. 



I. Parts op a Sentence, 
I. The Subject, 

1. Simple Subjects, 

2. Complex Subjects, 

3. Compound Subjects, 



161 

162 
163 
163 
167 



Vlll 



CONTENTS, 



II. The Predicate, \ 

1. Simple Predicates, . 

2. Complex Predicates, 

3. Compound Predicates, 

II. Kinds of Sentences, . 

I. Simple Sentences, 
II. Complex Sentences, 

III. Compound Sentences, 

III. Explanation op Terms, 

I. Phrases, . 
II. Clauses, 
III. Members, 
General Exercises in Analysis, 



PAGE 

168 
168 
169 
172 
173 
174 
174 
175 
175 
175 
176 
176 
177 



PUNCTUATION. 



I. Comma, 
II. Semicolon, 

III. Colon, . 

IV. Period, 

Y. Interrogation Point, 
VI. Exclamation Point, 
VII. Dash, . 
VIII. Parenthesis, 
IX. Brackets, 
X. Quotation, 
XI. Capitals, 



180 
190 
194 
196 
199 
200 
202 
207 
208 
210 
213 





English Grammar. 



Grammar is the science which treats of Language,* 

Explanations. — We say that Arithmetic is the science which treats of 
numbers, Botany is the science which treats of plants, Astronomy is the 
science which treats of the stars. So, Grammar is the science which treats 
of language.* 

Knowledge on any subject, arranged in some regular order, is called a 
Science. 

The words which a people use in speaking or writing are called a Lan- 
guage. 

The object of studying Grammar is to be able to understand, speak, and 
write a language correctly. 

Most of the terms used in Grammar are derived from Greek and Latin 
words. The meaning and derivation of these terms will be given in the 
notes. The teacher will observe, however, that in many instances the terms 
are now used in a sense considerably different from the original meaning. 
Still, the connection between the present use of the word and its original 
meaning can generally be traced, and the teacher should always so trace it, 
where practicable. 

Note. — Grammar takes its name from the Greek word gramma 
(ypapfza), a letter, or a writing, because it treats particularly of 
written language.* 

Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

* See Note to Teachers on page 10. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, 
Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification. 

Note. — This fourfold division has been retained herein deference to long 
established custom. In the present treatise, however, certain changes have 
been adopted. 

Part fourth, Prosody, belongs so manifestly to Rhetoric, that the treat- 
ment of it has been omitted entirely, the student being referred to the 
author's work on Composition and Rhetoric, where the subject is treated 
with some degree of fulness. 

Part third, Sentences, is treated under two distinct heads, Syntax and 
Analysis. 

There is some doubt whether Part first, Orthography, does not belong to 
the Spelling-Book rather than to the Grammar. But there are so many 
things in Orthography which are not taught in the Spelling-Books, which 
at least the scholar does not ordinarily learn in using them, and which he 
needs to know before entering upon the study of Grammar, that it seems 
hardly safe to omit this study altogether from a text-book on the subject. 



NOTE TO TEACHERS. 

The matter in this book is divided into three kinds, indicated by three 
varieties of type, and it is important that the object of this arrangement 
should be clearly understood. 

1. It is intended that the scholar should first go through the book, learn- 
ing the matter in the largest type only, with the declensions and conjuga- 
tions, and with such oral explanations from the teacher, and such portion 
of the Exercises, as may be found expedient. 

2. Having gone over the whole ground once, or perhaps twice, in this 
way, the scholar will be prepared to take up profitably the remaining por- 
tion of the Exercises, and the matter in the intermediate type. This in- 
termediate matter, however, is not intended to be committed to memory 
verbatim, like the rules and definitions in the largest type. 

3. The matter in the smallest type is for the purpose of explaining and 
defending the positions taken in the text. It is addressed to the teacher 
rather than to the scholar. The more advanced scholars might be encour- 
aged — if intelligent and studious they will probably be tempted — of their 
own accord, and at the proper time, to read this fine print matter. But it 
should be rarely, if ever, made the subject of examination, and it should in 
no case be required to be committed to memory. 



y 



r 

First Part. 



o**o 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

* The first part of Grammar is called Orthography. 
Orthography treats of Letters. 

Note. — Orthography takes its name from the Greek words 
orthos (bpddg), correct, and graphe (ypa<f>7/), writing, because it 
teaches the correct mode of writing. 

Orthography treats first of letters taken separately, and 
then of the mode of forming them into syllables and 
words, which is called spelling. 

The treatment of the Points and of the other characters used in writing, 
embracing the rules of Punctuation, belongs properly to Orthography. But 
the most important of these rules cannot be understood by the pupil until 
he is familiar with the principles of Grammar. This topic, therefore, is 
treated at the close of the book. 

I. LETTERS TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

Letters are written characters or signs used to repre- 
sent certain sounds of the human voice. 

A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a silent letter. 

11 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The letters of any Language are called its Alphabet. 

KTote. — Alphabet takes its name from alpha (atya) and beta 
(PqTa), the names of the first two letters in the Greek alphabet, 
corresponding to our a and b. Thus we often call our alphabet 
the a b c. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
Consonants are subdivided into Mutes and Semi-vowels. 

A Vowel may be fully sounded by itself. 

A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in con- 
nection with a vowel.* 

Ifote. — Vowel takes its name from the Latin vocalis, vocal, 
because it may be sounded freely and fully by itself, without the 
aid of any other letters. Consonant takes its name from the 
Latin words con, with, and sonans, sounding, because sounding 
with another letter, that is, not capable of being sounded per- 
fectly by itself.* 

This division of the letters into Vowels, Semi-vowels, and Consonants 
began with Aristotle, b. c. 330, and has been accepted by nearly all gram- 
marians until very recent times. The bewildering nomenclature of Tonics, 
Subtonics, Atonies, Obstructed, Unobstructed, Simple, Serial, Explodent, 
Continuant, etc., which has grown up of late years, has originated appar- 
ently in not distinguishing sufficiently between the letters of a language and 
its elementary sounds. It is the business of the Elocutionist to analyze and 
classify the sounds of a language; that of the Grammarian to classify and 
name its letters ; and no division or nomenclature invented since the days 
of Aristotle has greater practical convenience, or better expresses the true 
functions of the letters themselves, in their relations to Grammar, than that 
suggested by the Greek philosopher twenty-two centuries ago. 

This classification, as conceived by him, has its foundation in the action 
of the vocal organs in uttering the letters. 

When the mouth, throat, and other organs of speech are opened in a par- 
ticular position, and the voice is allowed to flow out in a continuous 
and uniform current, without any change in the position of the organs, 
the sound so formed is called a Vowel. In this manner we may prolong 
the sound of a indefinitely, or until out of breath. If, while the voice is 
thus issuing from the mouth, the current of sound is interrupted by a par- 
tial compression of the organs, the sound becomes a Semi-vowel. Thus, 

* See Note to Teachers on page 10 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

while prolonging the sound of a, if we press the tongue upon the upper part 
of the mouth, but allow the voice still to proceed, the sound becomes that 
of the letter I, as in the word ale. If this compression becomes so great as 
actually to close the organs, the sound ceases, and in the very act of ceasing 
gives rise to a Mute. Thus, in the case just mentioned, if instead of press- 
ing the tongue upon the roof of the mouth, we press it against the teeth, 
and entirely stop the passage of the voice, the actual termination of the 
sound is that indicated by the letter t, as in the word ate. This process 
may be reversed. The letter t may be formed first and the vowel follow it, 
as in pronouncing the word tale. In this case the mute is the very begin- 
ning of sound. 

A Mute, then, is the mere commencement or termination of the sound, 
on opening or closing the organs ; a Semi-vowel is a partial interruption 
or modification of the sound, caused by changing the position of the organs 
during utterance; and a Vowel is the very sound itself prolonged without 
change.* 

Vowels. 

The Vowels are a y e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
All the other letters are Consonants. 

Note. — W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel 
sound in the same syllable ; but are vowels in all other places. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 

A Proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded. The 
Proper diphthongs are two, namely, oi and ou, as in loin, loud. 

An Improper diphthong is one in which only one vowel is sounded ; as, 
oa in boat. The Improper diphthongs are numerous, and need not be re- 
peated. Strictly speaking, they are not diphthongs, but merely single vowel 
sounds preceded or followed by other vowels that are not sounded. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound; as, ieu in adieu. 

The triphthongs are three in number, eau, ieu, ieio ; as in beauty, lieu- 
tenant, review. Like the improper diphthongs, they contain only one vowel 
sound. 

Note 1. — £7 after q is never counted as part of a diphthong or 
of a triphthong. 

* See Note to Teachers on page 10. 



14 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Mote 2. — Diphthong and triphthong take their names from 
the Greek words dis (dig) and tris (rpig), two and three, and 
phthongos (4>0oyy6g) i sound. 

Consonants. 

The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

The Mutes and Semi-vowels may be distinguished both by the name and 
by the sound. 

In naming the mutes, the accompanying vowel generally follows ; as, pe, 
be; in naming the semi-vowels, the accompanying vowel precedes,- as, 
e f> e l- 

In sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, as in up ; in sounding 
the semi-vowels, the voice may be prolonged, as in al. 

The mutes are p, b, t, d, k, q, and c and g hard. 
The semi-vowels are I, m, n, r; c and g soft, &ndj; w and y 
when they are not vowels ; h; /and v; s and z; x. 
Four of the semi- vowels, I, m, n, r, are also called Liquids. 

The consonants are sometimes divided according to the part of the vocal 
organs by which they are formed. The principal divisions of this sort are 
labials, dentals, palatals, gutturals, nasals, and Unguals. 

These terms are derived from the Latin : labium, lip ; dens, dentis, tooth; 
palatum, palate j guttur, throat ; nasus, nose ; lingua, tongue. 

Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, Dentals by the teeth, Palatals by 
the palate, Gutturals by the throat, Nasals by the nose, and Linguals by the 
tongue. 

The Labials are p, b,f, v ; the Dentals t, d, c soft, s, z ; the Palatals g soft 
and j; the Gutturals k, a, and c and g hard; the Nasals m and n; and 
the Linguals I and r. 

Exercises. — In the following words, take each letter, as it 
stands, and say whether it is a vowel or a consonant; in enumer- 
ating the vowels, tell which of them, if any, form diphthongs 
or triphthongs; in enumerating the consonants, say o€ £ach 
whether it is a mute or a semi- vowel: — multitudinous, fre- 
quently, upheaval, influential, algebra, robbery, lieutenant, gro- 
tesque, reviewing, ocean, herbaceous, knowledge, slaughter, 
employer, thievish, joyfully. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

( Note. — For the sounds of the letters, the learner is referred to 
the Spelling-Book and the Dictionary. 

y/ II. WORDS AND SYLLABLES. 

A Word is a collection of letters used together to rep- 
resent some idea. 

A few words consist of only one letter each. 

A Syllable is so much of a word as can be pronounced 
by one impulse of the voice ; as, eon in contain. 

Spelling is putting letters together correctly so as to 
form syllables and words. 

jj te. — Syllable takes its name from the Greek words syl (avl) } 
together, and labein (Aapeiv), to take, because the letters which 
form a syllable are taken together, in one impulse of the voice. 

What is meant by syllable and by impulse of the voice can be best ex- 
plained orally, that is, by the teacher's actually sounding syllables succes- 
sively in the scholar's hearing, and calling his attention to the manner in 
which the sound comes from the mouth. When one syllable is ended and 
another is about to begin, the parts of the mouth and throat used for 
making the sound, take a new position, and a sort of jerk, or additional 
force, is given to the voice. This additional force, is what is meant by 
impulse. 

Note. — There are as many syllables in a word as there are 
vowels and diphthongs, not counting those which are silent or 
unsounded. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; of 
two, a Dissyllable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more 
than three, a Polysyllable. 

Example. — Truth is a monosyllable; truth-ful, a dissyllable ; 
truth-ful-ness, a trisyllable ; un-truth-ful-ness, a polysyllable. 

Note. — Monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, and polysylla- 
ble, take their names from the Greek words monos (judvog), one, 
dis (dig), two, tris (rpig), three, and poly (71-0/ti;), many, combined 
with syllable. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise. — Tell to which class each of the following words 
belongs : nation, uprightness, incomprehensible, authority, fre- 
quent, plague, opportunity, horse, element, elementary, robber, 
vowel, consonant. ' 

Note. — The teacher may add other examples at will. 

Rules for Spelling. 

y RULE I.— Y final. 

Part i. — Y final, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
into i on taking a suffix ; as, fanc-y, fanc-i-ful, (not 
fanc-y-ful) 

A suffix is something added to the end of a word. 

Exception 1. — Before ous, y sometimes becomes e; as, beaut-y, 
beaut-e-ous. 

Exception 2. — Before ing, y is not changed ; as, tarr-y, tarr- 
y-ing. 

Part 2. — Y final, preceded by a vowel, is not changed 
on taking a suffix ; as, play, play-er. 

Exceptions. — Day, which makes daily ; lay, pay, and say, 
which make laid, paid, and said, together with various other 
derivatives and compounds, as mislaid, unpaid, unsaid, etc. 

Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ful to mercy, 
plenty, bounty, duty, pity ; by adding es and ing to cry, pry, try, 
apply, deny, rely ; by adding er and est to merry, sorry, saucy, 
holy. 

Correct any of the following which need correction, and give 
the Rule for each change: like-ly-hood, handy-craft, quarry-ed, 
journey-ed, beautgtful, glory-ous, pityrous, pity -ful, melody-es, 
melody-ous, gay-ety, gay-ly, witty-ly, witty-er, betray-er,journey-ing. 

Original Exercises. — In addition to the examples in the 
book, both in the rules and the exercises, bring, written, of your 
own invention, the following : 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

Ten examples of y final changed to i, under Part 1 of the 
Rule. 

Five examples of y final becoming e, under Exception 1. 

Five examples of y final not changed, under Exception 2. 

Ten examples of y final not changed, under Part 2 of the 
Rule. 

RULE II.— E final, silent. 

Part i. — J? filial, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, is dropped ; as, care, car-ing. 

Exception 1. — Ie, on taking the suffix ing, is changed into y ; 
as, die, dy-ing. 

Exception 2. — Dye (to color), hoe, and shoe do not drop e on 
taking the suffix ing ; as, dye-ing, hoe-ing, shoe-ing. 

Exception 3. — Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e on taking 
the suffix ing. This is to retain the soft sound of the g, and to 
distinguish them from the corresponding forms of sing, swing, 
ting. Thus : sing-ing, siving~ing, ting-ing ; singe-ing, swinge-ing, 
tinge-ing. 

Exception 4. — Ce and ge, on taking a suffix beginning with 
a, o, or u, do not drop the e. This is to retain the soft sound of 
the e and g. Thus: service-able, not servic-able; change-able, not 
chang-able. 

Part 2. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a consonant, is not dropped; as, care, care-ful 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, 
argument ; wisdom, nursling ; duly, truly, awful, with some corres- 
ponding derivatives of due and true, such as duty, dutiful, truth, 
truthful, etc. 

Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ing to bite, 
force, revive ; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore. 

Form the following compounds, and give the rule for each 
change : ripe-en, ripe-ness, smoke-ing, lie-ing, sphere-ical, dispute- 
ant, tire-some, tie-ing, tie-ed, pave-ment, pave-ing, serve-ice- able, 
defense-ible, defense-less, cure-able, marriage- able, trace-ing, trace- 
able, fame-ous, courage-ous, re-pulse-ive-ness. 
2* B 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- 
tion : — 

Ten examples of e final dropped, under Part 1 of the Rule. 

Five examples of ie changed to y, under Exception 1. 

Ten examples of e final not dropped, under Part 2 of the Rule. 

/' 

RULE III.— Words ending in 11. /7 

Words ending in 11 drop one / on taking a suffix be- 
ginning with a consonant ; as, full, ful-ness ; also some- 
times on taking a prefix; as, full, hand-ful; till, un-til. 

Note. — Words ending in any other double letter are spelt in 
composition in the same manner as when alone ; as, stiff, stiff-ness. 

Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding to all the words 
though, together ; by combining with and all; by combining arm 
and full. 

Form the following compounds, and give the Eule for each 
change : full-fill, tall-er, buzz-ing, all-ways, well- come, use full, all- 
most, puff-ing. 

Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- 
tion : — 

Ten examples of I dropped on taking a suffix. 

Ten examples of I dropped on taking a prefix. 

RULE IV. — Doubling the final consonant. 

In words accented on the last syllable, a final conso- 
nant, if single, and if preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, 
permit, permit-t-ing. 

Monosyllables, being always accented, come of course under this rule. 

Note. — Here are four conditions: 1. The last syllable must 
have the accent; 2. It must end in a single consonant; 3. This 
single consonant must be preceded by a single vowel ; 4. The 
suffix must begin with a vowel. 

Examples. — In offer-ing, the first condition is wanting ; in 
torment-mg, the second condition; in appeal-ing, the third; in 
aver-ment, the fourth. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

There are more than sixty words about which there is a disagreement 
among lexicographers as to whether the final consonant should or should 
not be doubled. These words, ending chiefly in I, conform to the other 
three conditions of the rule, but are not accented on the last syllable. 
Webster and those who accept him as an authority do not double the final 
consonant in these cases. Worcester and his English predecessors, 
Richardson, Walker, Johnson and others, do double the final consonant. 
Worcester writes travel, travelling, traveller ; wo?*sfap, worshipping, wor- 
shipper. Webster writes travel, traveling, traveler; worship, worshiping, 
worshiper. 

The words in question are the following : worship, kidnap, compromit, bias ; 
carburet, sidphuretsmd some other like words in chemistry ; and the following 
fifty-three in I, namely, apparel, bevel, bowel, embowel, cancel, carol, cavil, 
channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, 
gravel, grovel, hatchel, housel, jewel, kennel, label, laurel, level, libel, marshal, 
marvel, model, panel, empanel, parallel, parcel, pencil, peril, imperil, pistol, 
pommel, quarrel, ravel, unravel, revel, rival,rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, 
trammel, travel, tunnel, victual. 

Exercises. — Spell the words formed by adding ing and ed to 
remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural ; er to revel ; ed 
to fulfil, rub, fail, refer ; ing to squat, sail, gallop, hum ; ant to 
assist; ent to excel ; ine to adamant ; ate to alien, origin; en to red, 
moist, fright ; ar to consul; er to propel; ous to mountain ; y to 
mud, meal, sleep ; ee to commit, absent, patent ; ard to slug, drunk. 
N. B. — In forming each combination, give the Rule applicable 
to it. 

Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own inven- 
tion : — 

Ten examples of doubling the final consonant under the Eule. 

Five examples in which the^rs^ condition only is wanting. 

Five, in which the second only is wanting. 

Five, in which the third only is wanting. 

Five, in which the fourth only is wanting. 

RULE V.— The terminations eive and ieve. 

In such words as receive, relieve, etc., ei is used if the 
letter c precedes ; as, receive, deceive ; but ie is used if any 
other letter precedes; as, relieve, believe. 

Exercise. — Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following 
words : retreive, perceive, acheive, concieve. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Miscellaneous Exercises. 

Spell the following words, making the necessary corrections, 
and show in each case the application of the Rule. 

1. Live-ing, live-ly-est, all-so, boy-ish, compel-ing, assail-ing, 
repent-ing, compuls-ory, commit-ed, comrnit-ment. 

2. Happy-ness, art-full, whole-some, smoke-y, trick-y, love- 
able, love-ly-ness, true-th-full-ness, due-ty-full-ly. 

3. Copy-ing, copy-ed, delay-ed, whole-ly, induce-ing, induce- 
ment, propel-ing, embroil-ing, infer-ing, infer-ence. 

4. Refine-er, refine- ment, amaze-ing, amaze-ment, glory-ous, 
beauty-ous, beauty-full, libel-er, sulphuret-ed, whip-ing. 

5. Full-some, awe-full, all-ways, well-fare, abet-ing, consent- 
ing, recruit-ing, diflfer-ing, fulfil-ment. 








Second Part. 



o^o 



ETYMOLOGY. 

The second part of Grammar is called Etymology. 

Note. — Etymology takes its name from the Greek words eiy- 
mos [krvfiog), true [root], and logos (Myog), discourse or treatise, 
because it treats of the true roots and meanings of words. 

Etymology treats of Words. 

Words are considered in regard to their Classification, 
Inflection, and Derivation. 

By the Classification of words is meant the arrange- 
ment of them into different classes, according to their 
signification and use. 

By the Inflection of words is meant the change of 
form which they undergo. 

By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them to 
their original form and meaning. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

The classes of words in English are nine; namely, 
Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, 

21 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- 
jections. 

Note. — These classes of words are sometimes called the Parts 
of Speech. 



I. ARTICLES. 

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show 
whether the noun is used in a definite, or in an indefinite 
sense. 

Mote. — Article takes its name from the Latin word articulus, 
a joint 

The Articles are a and the. 

A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Definite 
Article. 

The Article a is written an before a word beginning 
with a vowel sound ; as, a man, an old man, an honest 
man. 

Note. — In determining whether to use a, or to use an, we 
should notice,not the letter, but the real sound, with which the 
next word begins. 

Sometimes a vowel at the beginning of a word has the sound of a conso- 
nant. Thus o in one is pronounced as if the word began with the consonant 
sound of w ; u in unit is pronounced as if the word began with the conso- 
nant sound of y. In such cases the article should be a. On the other hand, 
the consonant h at the beginning of a word is sometimes not sounded, as in 
honest (pronounced onest). In that case, the article should be an. The 
following words, and words derived from them, are some of those which 
begin with silent h; honor, honest, hour, heir, herb, humble, hostler. 

A or an means one, and is used only before the singu- 
lar number; as, a man, an apple. 



ETYMOLOGY — ARTICLES. 23 

The is used before both numbers; as, the man, the men. 

Note 1. — A and the may be considered the same as one and 
that, only abbreviated in form, and unemphatic in meaning. 

Note 2. — Some nouns in the singular without an article before 
them are taken in the widest sense for a whole species ; as, man, 
for mankind. This usage, however, is by no means universal. 
On the contrary, in many words, the article is used for this very 
purpose ; as, the horse, for horses in general. 

A or an was originally ae, cine, or one. In course of time it became ab- 
breviated into its present form, and by a usage not uncommon in the his- 
tory of language, the short form acquired a shade of meaning different from 
the long form, though both were originally precisely the same. The differ- 
ence is this. One expresses the idea of unity with emphasis. A expresses 
the same idea, only without emphasis. This will be understood at once by 
an example. "Can one man carry this weight?" " No, but two could." 
" Can a man carry this weight?" "No, but a horse could." The idea of 
unity is expressed in both of these examples; but in the former it is em- 
phatic, in the latter it is not. In the former, one is the leading idea, as 
distinguished from two or more ; in the latter, man is the leading idea, as 
distinguished from horse or other animal. 

A similar remark may be made in regard to the. The word the was origi- 
nally thaet or that. In course of time it became abbreviated, and the short 
form acquired, in usage, a shade of meaning different from the original long 
one. That is demonstrative with emphasis ; the is demonstrative without 
emphasis. 

That these words have acquired a real difference in meaning as well as 
in form, is evident. 1. Because a and the cannot stand without a noun, 
one and that can. Thus, I can say, " Give me one, give me that" but I 
cannot say, "Give me a, give me the." 2. Because a and the do not neces- 
sarily contradistinguish from two and this, as one and that do. 3. Because 
in many cases they are evidently not interchangeable. "A kingdom for a 
horse," and " one kingdom for one horse," express different ideas. " The 
revolution," means, in this country, " the American" revolution. " That 
revolution" may or may not mean so. 

In considering the article as forming a separate part of speech, I have 
acted in conformity to the immemorial usage of all languages. The proper 
rank of a seems to be with the indefinite pronouns, and that of the with the 
demonstrative pronouns. If Grammar were a science to be written anew, 
very likely both the article and the adjective pronouns would be called, as 
in their nature they truly are, Adjectives. Even in that case, however, it 
is to be remarked, not so much would be gained in the way of simplification 
as some persons have supposed. We should require in that case a subdi- 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

vision of adjectives, corresponding to the present subdivision of the adjec- 
tive pronouns, for these words have differences of meaning and construc- 
tion, and, in those languages which admit of changes of termination, dif- 
ferences also of form, that clearly distinguish them, both from ordinary 
adjectives, and from each other. 

Exercises. — Name the appropriate indefinite article to be 
used before each of the following words : Ewe, yew, eye, ear, 
watch, one-eyed man, European, Indian, umbrella, use, end, day, 
opening, engineer, horse, honest, hiatus, human, humble, onion, 
orchard, usury. 

Parsing Exercise. — Parse " an " in the sentence " Give me 
an apple." * 

Model. — " An" is the indefinite article, placed before the noun 
" apple," to show that it is used in an indefinite sense. 

Parsing takes its name from the Latin word j)ars, part, because it shows 
the several parts of speech into which a sentence is divided. 

Parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties and relations of 
words, and the rules of syntax which properly belong to them. The pars- 
ing of a word cannot be complete until the rules of syntax relating to it are 
understood and applied. But a considerable part of parsiDg consists in 
stating the grammatical properties of a word by itself, as shown by ety- 
mology, and without reference to the other words in the sentence. The 
stating of these properties in regular order is called Etymological Parsing. 
Exercises in etymological parsing will be given under each Part of Speech. 



o>@<o 



II. NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, boy, school, book. 

Note 1. — The word thing in the foregoing definition is used in 
its widest sense, to signify not merely external objects which 
may be seen and handled, but whatever may be a subject of 
thought or discourse. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 25 

Note 2. — Letters and words used technically are to be consid- 
ered nouns ; as, "Cis sounded hard before a, o, u, &c. ; " " lb means 
pound." "Me is a pronoun." " + is the sign of addition." 

Note 3. — Noun comes from the Latin nomen, a name. 

To tile Teacher. — If the scholar begins his study of Grammar with this 
book, instead of first going through some more elementary treatise, the 
teacher should make him pause here, until, by repeated explanations, and 
by going over exercises again and again, he has become quite familiar with 
the nature of nouns, and can promptly distinguish them in going through 
a sentence. Exercises suitable for this purpose will be found in the au- 
thor's "Language Lessons for Beginners," pp. 5-13. 

The noun is the starting-point in teaching a scholar to analyze a sen- 
tence. 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes, Pboper 
and Common. 

A Proper noun is a name given to only one of a class 
of objects-; as, John, London, Delaware. 

Note. — A Proper noun should always begin with a capital 
letter. 

A Common noun is a name given to any one of a 
class of objects ; as, boy, city, river. 

Explanation. — There is a class of objects called "boys." The name 
"boy" is given to any one of that class. It is common to them all. One 
particular boy is called "John." That name is given to him only. It is 
peculiar or proper to him. So "city" is a name given in common to any 
one of another class of objects. But " London " is the name given to one 
particular city. It belongs peculiarly and properly to that city. Any one 
of a certain other class of objects is called a "river." The name is common 
to all such objects. But one particular object of this kind is called " Dela- 
ware." It belongs properly to that particular river. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are Proper, and 
which Common? Which should begin with a capital letter? 
remark, austria, empire, country, holland, queen, victoria, illi- 
nois, poet, milton. 
3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Original Exercises. — Bring, written, ten Common nouns, and 
ten Proper nouns, besides those in the foregoing list. 

FURTHER CLASSIFICATION. 

Some Common nouns are further classified as Collective, 
Abstract, Verbal, and Diminutive. 

A Collective noun is the name of a collection of objects con- 
sidered as one; as, army, crowd. A Collective noun is also called 
a noun of Multitude. 

An Abstract noun is one which denotes the name of a quality 
apart from the substance to which it belongs; as, sweetness, beauty. 
Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. 

A Verbal noun is one derived from a verb; as, reading. It is 
also called a Participial noun. 

A Diminutive noun is one derived from another noun, and 
expressing some object of the same kind but smaller; as, stream, 
streamlet; leaf, leaflet; hill, hillock; duch, duckling; goose, gosling. 

Exercises. — To what kind or class does each of the following 
Common nouns belong? islet, spelling, lambkin, hillock, acute- 
ness, loyalty, flock, senate. 

Original Exercises. — Bring, written, of your own invention, 
ten Collective nouns; ten Abstract nouns; ten Verbal nouns; 
three Diminutive nouns. 

II. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 
Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, Per- 
son, and Case. 

A noun has the attribute of Gender from its expressing sex; 
of Number, from its expressing unity and plurality ; of Person, 
from its expressing the relation of the noun to the speaker; and 
of Case, from its expressing the relation of the noun to some verb, 
preposition, or other noun. 

I. GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns and pronouns in 
regard to Sex. 

Mote. — Gender comes from the Latin genus, meaning birth, or 
kind by birth. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 27 

Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

The Masculine denotes objects of the male sex ; 
as, boy, man. 

The Feminine denotes objects of the female sex; 
as, girl } woman. 

The Neuter denotes objects without sex; as, booh, 
river. 

Some object to our speaking of three genders, as though it implied three 
sexes. The objection arises from confounding gender with sex. Gender 
is not sex, but a grammatical distinction growing out of sex. In reference 
to sex, objects are divided into two classes, those with sex, and those with- 
out sex. Objects with sex are subdivided into such as are male and such 
as are female. This gives us two sexes, male and female, but three gen- 
ders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

The English is, perhaps, the most philosophical of all languages in regard 
to gender. In other languages, things without life are generally masculine, 
feminine, or neuter, according to their terminations, and without reference 
to sex or the absence of it. But in English, gender is strictly a distinction 
of sex, things without sex being invariably neuter. In consequence of this 
peculiarity, the language is capable of a rhetorical beauty, which is un- 
known in other languages. Personification (which means considering in- 
animate objects as persons endowed with life) is, in its ordinary form, one 
of the boldest figures of rhetoric, and can be used with propriety only in 
the highest flights of poetry and oratory. There is, however, a lower kind 
of personification which can be used in English, and frequently with great 
beauty. When, for instance, it is desirable to raise the style slightly above 
the tenor of prose composition, it can often be done with the greatest ease, 
simply by applying "he" and " she" to neuter nouns. This indirect kind 
of personification at once enlivens the style, without rendering it passion- 
ate or overwrought. In this way we say of the earth, " she is fruitful," of 
the sun, " he has risen in his strength," of time, " he flies on rapid wings," etc. 

When this animated kind of phraseology is used, it is impossible to give 
any uniform rule for determining what nouns should be considered as mas- 
culine and what feminine. In general, however, in such cases, nouns be- 
come masculine which indicate superior strength, energy, or firmness. 
Those on the contrary are feminine which indicate delicacy, weakness, or 
timidity, or which are of a passive rather than an active nature. Exam- 
ples of those which are considered masculine are, sun, time, death, etc. 
Examples of femi nines are, moon, earth, church, nature, etc. 

In accordance with this, animals are sometimes regarded as masculine or 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



feminine, not from their sex, but from the masculine or feminine qualities 
of the tribe to which they belong. Thus we say: " The lion meets his foe 
boldly." " The hare leaps from her covert." 

Modes of Distinguishing Sex. 

There are three ways of distinguishing sex : 1. by the use of 
different words, as bachelor, maid; 2. by difference of termination, 
as abbot, abbess ; 3. by prefixing or affixing another word, as he- 
goat, she- g oat ; landlord, landlady. 



1. By the use of different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


King 


queen 


Beau 


belle 


Lad 


lass 


Boar 


sow 


Lord 


lady 


Boy 


girl 


Male 


female 


Brother 


sister 


Man 


woman 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


miss 


Bull 


) 


Mister 


Mistress 


Bullock 


> cow 


or Mr. 


Mrs. 


Ox 


\ 


Milter 


spawner 


Steer 


heifer 


Nephew 


niece 


Cock 


hen 


Papa 


mamma 


Colt 


filly 


Earn 


ewe 


Dog 


bitch 


Singer 


songstress 


Drake 


duck 


Sir 


[■ madam 


Earl 


countess 


Sire (the king) 


Father 


mother 


Sire, a horse 


dam 


Friar 


I nun 


Sloven 


slattern 


Monk 


Son 


daughter 


Gander 


goose 


Stag 


hind 


Hart 


roe 


Swain 


nymph 


Horse 


mare 


Uncle 


aunt 


Husband 


wife 


Wizard 


witch. 




2. By difference of termination. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Actor 


actress 


Author 


authoress 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Baron 


baroness 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 





ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS 


a 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Caterer 


cateress 


Poet 


poetess 


Chanter 


chan tress 


Priest 


priestess 


Conductor 


conductress 


Prince 


princess 


Count 


countess 


Prior 


prioress 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Protector 


protectress 


Director 


directress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Duke 


duchess 


Songster 


songstress 


Editor 


editress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Elector 


electress 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Emperor 


empress 


Tiger 


tigress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Founder 


foundress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Giant 


giantess 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


God 


goddess 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Governor 


governess 


Votary 


votaress. 


Heir 


heiress 






Host 


hostess 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Hunter 


huntress 


Executor 


executrix 


Instructor 


instructress 


Heritor 


heritrix 


Jew 


Jewess 


Testator 


testatrix 


Lion 


lioness 


Hero 


heroine 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Monitor 


monitress 


Widower 


widow 


Negro 


n egress 


Czar 


czarina 


Patron 


patroness 


Don 


donna 


Peer 


peeress 


Sultan 


sultana. 


3. By prefixing or 


affixing anothe 


r word. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Landlord 


landlady 


Man-servant 


maidservant 


Gentleman 


gentlewoman 


Male-child 


female-child 


Archduke 


archduchess 


Veacoch 


neahen 


Schoolmaster 


schoolmisfress 


C'oc^-sparrow 


Am-sparrow 


-fie-goat 


she-goat 


Grandfather 


grandmother. 



29 



Note 1. — Some nouns denote objects which may be either male 
or female ; as, bird, parent. These are said to be of the Common 
gender. 

3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 2. — Most masculines have no corresponding feminines ; 
as, baker, brewer, etc. A few feminines have no corresponding 
masculines ; as, laundress, brunette, virago, etc. 

Note 3. — In some of the words which have both masculine 
and feminine terminations, the masculine is ordinarily used to 
denote both sexes, wherever the office or profession is the idea 
chiefly intended. When, however, it is the intention of the sen- 
tence to designate the sex of the individual spoken of, the change 
of termination is to be observed. Thus, " the poets of the age " 
would be correct when speaking of poets of both sexes ; but the 
" best poetess of the age " would be used when speaking of female 
writers only. 

Note 4. — In speaking of small animals, or of those whose sex 
is not known, or not regarded, they are often considered as with- 
out sex : thus, we say of a cat " it is treacherous/' of an infant 
"it is beautiful, " of a deer "it was killed." 

Note 5. — A Collective noun is neuter when it refers, not to the 
objects separately, but to the collection as one whole. Thus : The 
class is large ; it must be divided. 

II. NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of nouns in regard to Unity 
and Plurality. 

Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular denotes One, the Plural More than 
one. 

Modes of forming the Plural. 

1. Plural in S, 

Nouns generally are made Plural by adding s to the 
Singular; as, book, books. 

2. Plural in es. 

Nouns ending in ch soft, s, sh, x, and z, are made 
Plural by adding es ; as, church, churches ; miss, misses ; 
lash, lashes; box, boxes; topaz, topazes. 

Note. — Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 31 

plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among these are 
cargo, negro, mulatto, tornado, volcano, potato, tomato, calico, hero, 
motto, etc. Others form the plural by adding simply s. Among 
these are canto, cento, junto, portico, piano, solo, tyro, armadillo, 
halo, memento, proviso, salvo, sirocco, virtuoso, zero, cameo, trio, 
quarto, octavo, duodecimo, folio, etc. 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of negro, lynx, quiz, radish, patri- 
arch, peach, mass, rhombus, trio, motto, halo. 

3. Plural in veS. 

Xouns ending in single /, or in fe, are made Plural 
by changing / or fe into ves; as, loaf loaves ; life, lives. 

Note 1. — The following form the plural according to the gen- 
eral rule, viz. : Brief, chief grief mischief kerchief handkerchief 
dwarf surf, turf, fife, strife, hoof roof proof reproof safe, scarf 
gulf 

Note 2. — Nouns in double/ follow the general rule; as, muff, 
muffs. Exc. Staff, a stick, has staves in the plural ; staff, sl body 
of officers, has staffs. The compounds of staff all have staffs in the 
plural ; as, flagstaffs, tipstaffs, distaffs, etc. 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of wharf, half, cuff, leaf, beef, calf, 
thief, wife. 

4. Plural in ieS. 

Nouns ending in y after a consonant are made Plural 
by changing y into ies ; as, lady, ladies. 

Note. — Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into 
ies, but form the plural by the general rule ; as, day, days. 

Exercise. — Spell the plural of the following: Eay, toy, chim- 
ney, tray, artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, valley, 
money. 

5. Plural in *S» 

Letters, figures, and other characters, used as nouns, 
are made Plural by adding the apostrophe and s; as, 
" Dot your i's and cross your t's ; " " the -J-'s should be 
transposed ;" " Three 6\s = two 9 ? s." 



32 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



Plural of Proper Nouns. 

Proper nouns, and other parts of speech used as nouns, 
are made Plural in the same manner as Common nouns 
of like endings ; as, the Pompeys and Ciceros of the age ; 
the ins and outs of office. 

In words of this kind, ending in y after a consonant, 
the usage is not uniform. Some simply add s; as, The 
Marys and Marthas; the whys and wherefores. Some 
change the y into ies ; as, The two Sicilies, the Allegha- 
nies, five-twenties. 

Nouns Irregular in the Plural. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 


teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Ox 


oxen 


Louse 


lice. 


Foot 


feet 







Plurals with Different Significations. 



Singular. 

Brother 

Die 

Genius 

Index 

Penny 

Pea 

Cow 



Plural. 
Regular. 

brothers (of same family) 
dies (for coining) 
geniuses (men of genius) 



Irregular. 

brethren (of same society) 
dice [for gaming) 
genii [spirits) 



indexes (tables of reference) indices (signs in algebra) 

pennies ^ pence | 

peas > distinct objects pease J ' 

cows J kine }■ the kind of animal 



the denomination 



The compounds of man form the plural in the same manner as 
the simple word ; as, alderman, aldermen. 

Care should be taken, however, not to confound compounds of the word 
man with words that accidentally end in those three letters. Thus states- 
man is really compounded of two words, states and man; but Turcoman, 
Mussulman, German, are simple words, like talisman, ottoman (a kind of 



ETYMOLOGY 



NOUNS. 



33 



seat), and form the plural 
talismans, ottomans. 



re, 



ijularly, thus: Turcomans, Mussulmans, Germans, 



Plural of Compounds. 

Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective connected by 
a hyphen take the sign of the plural upon the noun only ; as, 
court-martial, courts-martial. 

Compounds consisting of two or more words connected by a hyphen, are 
sometimes composed of two nouns, one of which is used in the sense of an 
adjective, as man-trap, in which the word man is really an adjective; or of 
a noun and some combination of words having the force of an adjective, as 
father-in-law, in which the combination in-law has the force of an adjective, 
as much so as the word legal. In all these compounds, the sign of the 
plural is added to that part of the compound which really constitutes the 
noun, as, man-traps, fathers-in-law. 

In forming the possessive of such compounds, the rule is different, the 
sign of the possessive being uniformly added to the end of the compound 
expression: thus, father-in-law, pi. fathers-in-law, poss. father-in-law's. 

The compounds of full form the plural regularly ; as, mouth- 
ful, mouthfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls ; bucketful, bucketfuls. 

Exercise. — Form the plural of the following: Man-of-war, 
man-eater, drum-major, major-general, sergeant-at-arms, hen-coop, 
pin-cushion. 

Plural of Foreign Words. 

Words adopted without change from foreign languages gener- 
ally retain their original plurals. 

These words are now very numerous, particularly in works on science and 
the arts, and not a few are to be found in works of every description. Only 
a few of the most common can be given here. For the others, the learner 
should consult a dictionary. 



Formula 


formulae 


Erratum 


errata 


Nebula 


nebulae 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia 


Addendum 


addenda 


Stratum 


strata 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Automaton 


automata 


Datum 


data 


Criterion 


criteria 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Alumnus 
C 


alumni 



34 



ENGLISH &EAMMAE. 



Alumna 


alumnae 


Axis 


axes 


Focus 


foci 


Basis 


bases 


Fungus 


fungi 


Crisis 


crises 


Radius 


radii 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Sarcophagus 


sarcophagi 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Oasis 


oases 


Terminus 


termini 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Thesis 


theses 


Analysis 


analyses 


Appendix 


appendices 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Vertex 


vertices. 



Some foreign words are so far domesticated as to have an 
English plural as well as a foreign one. Among these are the 
following : 



Singular. 


Foreign Plural. 


English Plural. 


Cherub 


cherubim 


cherubs 


Seraph 


seraphim 


seraphs 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


memorandums 


Medium 


media 


mediums 


Bandit 


banditti 


bandits 


Stamen 


stamina 


stamens. 



General Remarks on Number. 

1. Some nouns are for the most part not used in the plural. 
Among these are the names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, 
abstract qualities, and of things that are either weighed or meas- 
ured ; as, gold, goodness, idleness, wisdom, flour, milk. 

2. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Among these are 
annals, antipodes, archives, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, 
goods, nuptials, measles, oats, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages ; also 
the names of things consisting of two parts, as, bellows, scissors, 
tongs, pincers, tweezers, trowsers, etc. 

3. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. Among these are 
deer, sheep, trout, salmon, etc. : also several foreign words, as appa- 
ratus, series, species, etc. The singular of such words may gener- 
ally be distinguished by the use of the indefinite article a or an; 
as, a series, a deer, a trout, an apparatus, etc. 

4. Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, and at 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 35 

other times have a regular form for the plural. Among these are 
heady brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, etc. Thus we, say "He 
bought twenty dozen of them," and " He bought them in dozens." 

5. Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular or plural 
in meaning. Among them are amends, means, news, riches, etc.; 
also the names of certain sciences, as conies, optics, ethics, math- 
ematics, etc. 

6. Means and amends are singular when they refer to only one 
object, plural when they refer to more than one. The singular 
mean is also used to signify strictly the middle between two ex- 
tremes. News is rarely found with a plural signification. Riches 
has both a singular and a plural signification. Alms is strictly 
singular. 

The 8 at the end of the last two words is not the s of the plural formation, 
but is a part of the original word. Thus, riche8 is derived from the French 
richesse, and according to its derivation should properly be singular. But 
usage has given it both a singular and a plural meaning, as stated above. 
Alms, however, from almesse, retains its original meaning, and is always 
singular. 

III. PERSON. 

Person is the distinction of nouns in their relation 
to the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

The First person is the Speaker, The Second 
is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken 

OF. 

Note. — Instances of the use of nouns in the First Person are 
not common, and as no change in the form of the word takes 
place in consequence of the person, some grammarians omit it 
altogether in speaking of nouns. 

The question whether nouns are really ever used in the first person is 
not a point perhaps of much practical importance. The following sen- 
tences, however, seem to be examples of nouns in the first person : — " The 
Elder unto the elect lady and her children, whom /love," etc. — 2 John 1. 
u The Elder unto the well-beloved Gaius, whom / love/' etc. — 3 John 1. 
" Paul, a servant, etc., to Titus, mine own son," etc. In these examples, 



36 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

the pronouns I and mine indicate the person of Elder and Paul, just as 
clearly, and by just the same kind of evidence, that the pronoun her indi- 
cates the gender of the word lady. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, tell which, are nouns ; 
and say of each whether it is proper or common ; and what is its 
gender, number, and person. 

I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem. Eouse, ye Eomans, 
rouse, ye slaves. I heard a voice, saying unto me, Arise, Peter. 
We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro- 
vide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and 
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of 
America. j 

IV. CASE. ' 

Case distinguishes the relation of a noun to some 
verb, preposition, or other noun. 

The word Case is from the Latin casus, a falling. It has no reference to 
the meaning of the word, as now used in Grammar, but to the way in which 
the cases were exhibited in the old Latin Grammars, the Nominative being 
put at the top of a series, and the other cases being represented as falling 
away from it and below it. 

Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

Note. — The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes 
three ideas, viz. : those of subject, object, and ownership. A noun 
may be to a verb in the relation of its subject, or that of which 
the assertion is made, and then it is in the nominative case ; or it 
may be to a verb or a preposition in the relation of its object, or 
that on which some action or relation terminates, and then it is 
in the objective case; or it may have to some other noun the re- 
lation of ownership or possession, and then it is in the possessive 
case. According to this view of the subject, 

The Nominative Case is that in which a noun is the 

SUBJECT OF A VERB. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 37 

The Possessive Case is that which denotes owner- 
ship OR POSSESSION. 

The Objective Case is that in which the noun is 

THE OBJECT OF SOME VERB OR PREPOSITION. 

The Nominative and Objective cases arealike in form. 

Hote. — Pronouns have cases, in the same manner as nouns. 

How to find the Nominative. — The subj ect of the verb may be 
found by putting " who " or " what" before the verb and asking 
the question. Example: "A man bought a hat." Who bought? 
Ans. Man. Therefore, " man " is the subject of the verb " bought," 
and is in the nominative case. 

How to find the Objective. — The object of a verb or of a 
preposition may be found by putting " whom " or " what " after 
the verb or the preposition and asking the question. Examples : 
" William hurt his sister." Hurt whom ? Ans. Sister. There- 
fore, " sister " is the object of the verb " hurt." " William went 
into the street." Into what? Ans. Street. Therefore, "street " 
is the object of the preposition "into." 

Exercises. — Find the subject of each verb in the following 
sentences ; also, the object of each verb and preposition : 

The teacher of the second division assigned to the first section 
a lesson in geography. 

A lesson in geography was assigned to the whole division. 

Idleness in youth brings misery in old age. 

Lying leads to other bad habits. 

Formation of the Possessive. 

The Possessive Singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular, by adding an apostrophe and s. 

The Possessive Plural is formed from the nomina- 
tive plural, by adding an apostrophe only when the plural 
ends in s, and by adding both the apostrophe and s 
when the plural does not end in s. 

A few words here may not be out of place, in regard to the true origin 
of the English Possessive. 

In the most ancient form of the language, there were three distinct 
4 



38 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

declensions, each, with a different form for the Possessive, or Genitive. The 
Genitive ending of the First declension was es, that of the Second an, that of 
the Third e (1. Staef, staefes, a letter; 2. Witega, witegan, a wise man; 3. 
Wyln, wylne, a maid-servant). In the changes which took place after the 
Norman conquest, all the inflectional forms of nouns gave way except some 
remains of the old Plural formation, and the Genitive or Possessive of the 
old First declension. This, written sometimes es, and sometimes is, was in 
universal use in the time of Chaucer (mannes wit, cherubinnes face, 
Chaucer; Goddis grace, Cristis vicar, Wycliffe), and remained with little 
change for a full century after Chaucer, as late in fact as A. d. 1500. In 
Spenser, and in writers for nearly a century after him, say from A. D. 1600 
to nearly A. d. 1700, we find three forms in concurrent use; namely, (1) s 
simply, the e being dropped (fathers kingdom, mothers blood) ; (2) our 
present form, 's, the apostrophe being used in recognition of the lost c; (3) 
his (Pegasus his kind, Spenser ; Marot his song, Fletcher's Purple Island), 
the form originating apparently in a mistaken notion that the 's was a cor- 
ruption of his. 

General Remarks on the Possessive. 

1. There was at one time a prevalent notion, which indeed 
to some extent still prevails, that when the nominative ends in 
s the possessive is found by adding the apostrophe only. This 
is true in the plural, but not in the singular. In the possessive 
singular, the s is added, though the nominative does end in s. 
The best writers at the present day rarely, if ever, omit this addi- 
tional s. Thus, Adams's speeches, Dickens's works, James's books. 

When, by carrying out this rule, too great a combination of hissing sounds 
is produced, the difficulty may be avoided by using the alternative form. 
Thus: The sister of Moses, instead of Moses's sister; for the sake of con- 
science, instead of for conscience's sake. The only exception to this rule 
that seems thoroughly established is " for Jesus' sake." This probably had 
its origin in the fact that the name itself, in the old works of devotion, was 
Jesu, giving regularly Jesu's sake, which sounds exactly like our Jesus' sake, 

2. When the nominative ends in a sound with which the 
apostrophic s cannot combine, the word is pronounced as if 
es were added. Thus, church's is pronounced exactly like 
churches. In writing these forms, care should be taken not to 
be misled by the sound. 

3. In like manner, in nouns ending in y after a conso- 
nant, care should be taken not to confound the possessive sin- 
gular and the nominative plural, which are pronounced alike, 
though written differently ; as, lady, pos. s. lady's, nom. p. l&dies. 



ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 



39 



4. The import of the possessive may generally be expressed 
by the preposition of; thus, "marts wisdom" means " the wis- 
dom of man." These two forms of expression, however, do 
not always mean the same. Thus, "the king's picture" may 
mean a picture belonging to the king; but "a picture of the 
king" necessarily means a portrait of him. 

5. The apostrophe and s do not always indicate the pos- 
sessive case. They are sometimes employed to form the plural 
of mere letters or characters used as nouns ; as four S's, ten 6's, 
etc. ; also to form the singular of verbs of a similar character ; 
as, "He pro's and con's, and weighs the matter o'er." 



Declension of Nouns. 



Nom. 

Friend 
Man 

Church 
Lady 



Singular, 
Poss. 

friend's 
man's 
church's 
lady's 



Obj. Nom. 

friend friends 

man men 

church churches churches' 

lady ladies ladies' 



Plural. 

Poss. 

friends' 
men's 



Obj. 
friends 
men 

churches 
ladies 



Jones Jones's Jones Joneses Joneses' Joneses. 

Exercises in Declension. — Decline fox, farmer, Benjamin, 
James, city, attorney, lass, miss. 

Form the possessive case singular of Agnes, Robert Morris, 
Roger Williams, Martin Van Bur en, John Quincy Adams, maid- 
of-all-work. 

Form the possessive case, singular and plural, of baby, colony, 
landlady, dray, calf, mulatto, ox, ox-cart. 

Correct the following expressions: Lazarus' son; The 9s were 
cast out ; There are two Jcs in kick ; James' lesson is hard. 



Parsing Exercises. — Parse John in the sentence, "John 
went home." 

Model. — "John" (1.) is a noun, it is the name of a person; 
(2.) a proper noun, it is a name given to only one of a class; 
(3.) of the masculine gender, it denotes a male; (4.) in the sin- 
gular number, it denotes but one; (5.) in the third person, it is 
spoken of; (6.) in the nominative case, it is the subject of the 
verb " went." 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Note. — The figures inserted in this model are not to be recited. 
They are put in to show the order in which the several properties 
of the word are to be given. These six items must be given, and 
given in this order, in parsing every noun. The scholar in learn- 
ing, and the teacher in hearing the recitation, may, by following 
the order of the figures, know that nothing is omitted. 

Exercise. — Parse all the Nouns and Articles in the following 
sentences : Grace Darling was a light-house-keeper's daughter. 
In a great emergency, she helped her father to row a boat during 
a dreadful storm, and by this means, in the hands of Providence, 
she prevented sorrow in many mothers' hearts. 



III. ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify a Noun; as, 
good man. 

To " qualify " means here to limit the meaning of a thing, to express 
some of its qualities. An adjective generally denotes some quality belong- 
ing to an object. It describes the object. It serves to show the difference 
between things having the same name, as good boy, bad boy, sweet apple, 
sour apple, etc. 

Hotel. — Adjective takes its name from the Latin adjectus, 
added to, because it is a word added to a noun. 

Note 2. — Nouns become adjectives when they are used to ex- 
press some quality of another noun ; as, gold ring, sea water. 

Note 3. — Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and admit 
of number and case ; as, our superiors, his betters, by fifties, for 
twenty's sake, etc. 

Note 4. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article are often 
used as nouns ; as, " The little that was known of him." When 
the expression refers to persons, the adjective is always consid- 
ered plural ; as, " the good/ 9 meaning good men. 

Some grammarians have objected to making adjectives a separate part 
of speech, and have classed them under the head of nouns, because they 
often, if not always, denote some substance, quality, or property, just as 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 41 

truly as nouns do. Thus, "brazen tube" means "a tube made of trass." 
The adjective brazen denotes the same substance that the noun brass does. 
In like manner, waxen implies the substance icax, golden implies the sub- 
stance gold, hard the quality hardness. The objection is founded in a mis- 
taken view of the true nature of the noun. That which distinguishes the 
noun from the other parts of speech is not that it expresses an idea of 
some substance, quality, or thing, and that the others do not. On the con- 
trary, every part of speech, every word in fact, necessarily expresses this idea, 
in some form. Thus, "above" and "below" convey the idea of some cir- 
cumstance, quality, or thing, just as much as do the words " top " and 
"bottom." In the words person, personal, personally, personify ; thought, 
thoughtful, thoughtfully, thinks, etc., we have the same idea of some sub- 
stance or thing, and this idea running through a whole series of words, 
each of which is a different part of speech. The noun, then, is distin- 
guished from the other parts of speech, not from its expressing the idea of 
some substance, quality, or thing, but from its being the name of that idea. 
If we speak or think of the name of that idea, we use a noun. If we con- 
nect that idea with any noun as one of its qualities, accidents, or attributes, 
but without affirmation, it is an adjective. For further illustrations of this 
point, see the remarks upon the verb. 

I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives which express number are called Numer- 
als. 

Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, Cardinal, 
Ordinal, and Multiplicative. 

The Gardinal Adjectives are, one, two, three, four, etc. 

The Ordinal Adjectives are, first, second, third, 
fourth, etc. 

The Multiplicatives are, single, double, triple, etc. 

There are also various compound adjectives into which 
the numerals enter; as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three- 
leaved, etc., two-fold, three-fold, four-fold, etc. 



^- 



II. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIV 

Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 
The Degrees of Comparison are three, Positive, Com- 
parative, and Superlative. 

4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Most adjectives express qualities which are capable of existing in many 
different degrees. Thus, a thing may not only be black, but may be blacker 
than some other thing, or the blackest of all things, or may be only blackish, 
that is, somewhat black, or may be very black, or by far the blackest of the 
things now under consideration, etc. As the degrees in which such a qual- 
ity may exist are infinite, so there is an almost infinite number of modes, 
through circumlocutions and other contrivances of speech, of expressing 
these degrees. In other words, the degrees of comparison may be multi- 
plied to almost any extent. Three of these, however, are so much more 
common than the rest, that the name is restricted to them. 

Regular Comparison. 

The Comparative is formed by adding er, and the 
Superlative by adding est, to the Positive; as, great, 
greater, greatest 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally 
compared by prefixing to the Positive the words more 
and most, less and least; as, numerous ; more numerous, 
most numerous; less numerous, least numerous. 

Note 1. — More and most, less and least may, in these cases, be 
parsed separately as adverbs, qualifying the adjective ; or the 
adverb and the adjective may be taken together as the compara- 
tive or superlative form of the adjective. 

Note 2. — Some adjectives form the Superlative by adding most 
to the end of the word ; as, upper, upperaostf. 

Dissyllables ending in y or e are generally compared by adding er and 
est ; as, happy, happier, happiest ; able, abler, ablest. 

Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 


Far 


r farther 
\ further 


( farthest 
1 furthest, 



ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 43 

Note. — Bad has also evil and ill in the positive ; and much has 
also many. Elder and eldest come regularly from eld (now obso- 
lete). 

Superlatives with Different Meanings. 

Near nearer nearest (in place) next') 

Late later latest (in time) last \ in order. 

Fore former foremost (in place) first ) 

Note 1. — Prior, superior, ulterior, exterior, inferior, etc., involve 
the idea of comparison, like the words previous, preferable, and 
many others, but are not considered as comparatives, and are not 
followed by than, as English comparatives usually are. 

Note 2. — The termination ish makes what is^ometimes called 
a subpositive; as, bluish, blackish, etc. 

Some of the ideas expressed by adjectives are fixed and absolute. That 
is, they refer to things not capable of increase or diminution. Among these 
may be reckoned those which denote some definite number, shape, or posi- 
tion ; as, two, three, second, third, circular, triangular, 'perpendicular, etc. ; 
also those which express the substance of which any thing is made, as, 
golden, flaxen, etc. ; also many such words as whole, universal, supreme. 
All such adjectives are incapable of being compared. 

Exercises in Comparison. — Compare unlucky, lucky, benev- 
olent, shady, sad, active, abusive, noisy, lazy, gay, fine, irregular, har- 
monious, juicy, ill-natured, thoughtless. 

Give the superlative of hind, inner, outer, top. 

Parsing Exercises. — Parse "wise" in the sentence, " Solomon 
was a wise king." 

Model. — "Wise (1.) is an adjective, it is used to qualify the 
noun 'king;' (2.) it is in the positive degree, compared 'wise, 
wiser, wisest.' " 

Parse all the Nouns, Articles, and Adjectives in the following 
sentences : 

The exterior of the stone wall was perpendicular. It had 
a thickness of two feet at the top, and was still thicker at the 
bottom. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We should not consider our inferiors contemptible, for though 
they may be our inferiors in rank, they are perhaps our superiors 
in virtue. 

The wicked often put off repentance to the eleventh hour. 

Rain water is less pleasant to the taste than river or spring 
water is. Though the former may contain less foreign matter, 
the latter is more acceptable to the thirsty. 

Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less 
or more plentiful. 



IV. PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
u The man is happy, because he is benevolent." 

Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Personal, 
Relative, and Adjective. 

There is, I believe, some misapprehension in regard to the precise sense 
in which a pronoun stands instead of a noun. Some writers seem to enter- 
tain the opinion that a noun and its pronoun are strictly interchangeable 
words, and that not only is the latter a substitute for the former, but that 
the former may, in every case, be restored to its supposed original place in 
the sentence. This mistake originated probably from confining the attention 
to examples taken from the third person, where the noun may often, though 
very inelegantly, take the place of the pronoun which represents it. Thus, 
instead of " The man is happy because he is benevolent/' we may say, 
*'The man is happy, because the man is benevolent." But, when Nathan 
says to David, "Thou art the man," David cannot be substituted for thou 
without changing the sense. To understand precisely in what sense a 
pronoun is used instead of a noun, it should be recollected that a noun has, 
in the first place, a meaning of its own, independently of its connection 
with the other words in the sentence. Thus, the word "book," as soon as 
uttered, conveys to the mind a certain idea. In addition to this idea, thus 
contained in the word itself, a noun is capable of conveying to the mind, at 
the same time, certain other ideas in consequence of its offices, as & possessor, 
as the subject or object of the verb, as indicating some relation to the speaker, 
etc. Now, the pronoun discharges this latter class of duties in place of the 
noun, and often where the noun itself could not be used for the purpose. 
The pronoun L* the subject of the verb, the object of the verb, indicates 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 45 

the speaker, the person spoken to, the person spoken of, distinguishes sex, 
etc., just as the noun would do in its place. At the same time, the noun 
cannot always, nor even often, replace the pronoun which refers to it. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ^ 

The Personal Pronouns are five; /, thou, he, she, it; 
with their plurals, we, you, they. 

They are called Personal Pronouns because they de- 
note person by themselves, and without reference to any 
other word. 

Personal Pronouns have Gender, Number, Person, and 
Case. 

The Personal Pronouns express the idea of Person by themselves, and 
independently of their connection with the other words in a sentence. 
Thus, /, thou, he, convey the idea of person at once, as soon as uttered. 
This idea, so far as it is expressed by the relative pronouns, and by nouns, 
is conveyed, not by anything in the meaning of the words themselves, but 
by means of their connection with other words. Thus, who, by itself, con- 
veys no intimation of person ; but it becomes personal as soon as it is con- 
nected with an antecedent, as he who, thou who, man icho. Some of the 
adjective pronouns (the Demonstrative) express indeed the idea of person 
by their own proper meaning, in the same manner as the personal pronoun, 
but they also express an additional and more important idea, which suffi- 
ciently distinguishes them from the former class. Their demonstrative 
character is the predominating one, and gives them their name. In like 
manner the Relative pronouns are distinguished from the other classes. 
Every pronoun, indeed, so far as it is a pronoun at all, necessarily relates 
to something. But this relation is not the leading and prominent idea in 
any except the Relative pronouns. In each class, it is the leading and 
prominent idea which gives name to the class, and not any property which 
it possesses exclusive of the rest. Thus, the leading idea in the Personal 
pronouns is the distinction of person; in the Relative pronouns, the rela- 
tion to the antecedent; in the Adjective pronouns, the dependence of the 
word upon some noun in the manner of an adjective. 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
First Person — Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. Plural. 



Nom. 


/ 


Nom. 


we 


Poss. 


my, or mine 


Poss. 


our, or ours 


Obj. 


me, 


Obj. 


us. 



46 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 





Second Person 


— Masc. or Fern. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


thou 


Nom. you 


Poss. 


thy, or thine 


Poss. your, or yours 


Obj. 


thee 


Obj. you. 




Third Person — Masculine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


he 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


his 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


him 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Feminine. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


&he 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


her, or hers 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


her 


Obj. them. 




Third Person — Neuter. 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom 


it 


Nom. they 


Poss. 


its 


Poss. their, or theirs 


Obj. 


it 


Obj. them. 



The fact that in most languages no separate forms have been invented for 
the masculine and feminine of the First and Second Persons may be ac- 
counted for perhaps by inquiring into the reason why gender itself was in- 
vented. Gender seems to be a contrivance to assist in distinguishing more 
clearly the person or thing that is the subject of discourse. Now in the first 
and second persons, this is unnecessary. The speaker, and the one spoken to, 
are present to the view, and by that very fact need nothing else to distin- 
guish them. But the third person, that is, the thing spoken of, is or may 
be absent, and needs the distinction of gender to designate it more clearly. 



Remarks on the Personal Pronouns. 

1. In the first person, the plural we is often used for the 
singular I, by Editors, Reviewers, Governors, etc. 

2. In the second person, the plural is generally used for the 
singular. Thus, you is used for thou, your or yours for thy 
or thine, and you for thee. In prayers to God, however, and on 
other solemn occasions, we use the singular form, thou, thy or 
thine, thee. 

3. Where a pli\ral pronoun is thus used, while only one 
person is meant, the verb as well as the pronoun must be plural. 
Thus : we arc, not we is ; you were, not you was. 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 47 

4. The second person plural had originally ye in the nomina- 
tive and you in the objective. The form ye, however, has now 
become obsolete, and you is used both for the nominative and 
the objective. 

5. The Possessives should never be written with an apostrophe, 
her's, it's, our's, your's, their 's, but always thus : hers, its, ours, 
yours, theirs. 

6. The adjective own is frequently found connected with the 
possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order to make the 
possessive emphatic ; thus, " It is your own fault." 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

Myself, thyself, himself, herself, and itself, with their 
plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called Com- 
pound Personal Pronouns. 

Note. — In the Compound Personal Pronouns, the nominative 
and objective cases are alike, and the possessive is wanting. No 
formal declension of them, therefore, is needed. 

These Compound Personal Pronouns, it is to be noticed, are formed by 
adding self in the Singular and selves in the Plural to the simple pronoun. 
This addition is made, in the first and second persons, to the Possessive case 
of the pronoun ; in the third person, the addition is made to the Objective. 

Parsing* Exercises. — Parse " he," in the sentence, " When 
John was at school, he wrote a letter to his father." 

Model. — "He" is (1.) a personal pronoun, (2.) third person, 
(3.) masculine gender, (4.) singular number, (5.) nominative case, 
subject of the verb "wrote." 

Parse all the Personal Pronouns in the following examples : 

The wind, when it blows upon my body, making it shiver, tells 
me that I am mortal, though some persons would only complain 
that they were obliged to bear its buffetings. 

The Queen of Sheba retired from Solomon's presence, con- 
vinced that his wisdom was greater than any account that had 
been given to her of it, would have led her to infer. 

We, the people, watch with jealousy those who are our rulers, 
that they may not infringe upon our rights, and that the liberties 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which we possess may be secured to our children when they suc- 
ceed us. 

Parse all the Articles, Nouns, and Adjectives in the foregoing 
sentences. 

\ II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, what, and 
that 

These are called Relative Pronouns because they re- 
late to some word going before, called the antecedent ; 
as, "The boy who wishes to be learned must be studious." 

Every pronoun, indeed, necessarily relates to the word which it represents. 
But this relation is not the leading and prominent idea in any except the 
Relative pronouns. (See remarks under Personal Pronouns, p. 45.) 

WIio is used in speaking of persons; as, "The gentle- 
man who called," " The lady who called." 

Which is used ordinarily in speaking of inferior 
animals, or of things without life ; as, u The horse which 
was bought," " The pencil which was given." 

Which is often used as an adjective pronoun; as, " Which 
things are an allegory." 

What, as a relative, takes the place of which whenever 
the antecedent is omitted. 

" This is [the thing] which I wanted." If we omit the ante- 
cedent, the which must be changed to what. "This is [ ] what 
I wanted." No reason can be given for this peculiarity, except 
that custom has made it so. It is a law of the language. 

We have a usage somewhat like this in some of the possessive pronouns. 
"This is my [book]." If we leave out the noun, the pronoun must be 
changed. "This is mine [ ]." The pronouns which follow this rule are 
six, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs. They uniformly take the place of 
the ordinary form, whenever the noun expressing the thing possessed is 
omitted, just as what takes the place of which whenever the antecedent is 
omitted. 






ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49 

The word left out in these cases is usually something so easily supplied, 
that it seems to exist in the pronoun itself, whereas it really exists only in 
our own thoughts. What does not of itself mean " the thing which," any 
more than mine of itself means a my book." In both instances, the noun 
is at once suggested to the mind, but it is not wrapped up in some myste- 
rious manner in the pronoun. 

We have in English other instances which still further strengthen this 
view of the case. 

" [He] who steals my purse steals trash." Here who does not stand for 
" he who ; " the antecedent is supplied by the mind. 

" We speak that [which] we do know." John 3 : 10. " I am that [which] 
lam." Ex. 3: 14. " Gather the sequel hj that [which] went before." — 
Shakespeare. Here we do not say that that is equivalent to " that which." 
The " which " is suggested by the mind, not wrapped up in the " that." 

What always refers to things without life, and therefore is 
always neuter. It may be either singular or plural. " What 
[the thing which] appears to be a fault is only a virtue in dis- 
guise." " What [the things which] appear to be faults are only 
virtues in disguise." 

What is often used as an adjective pronoun ; as, " We lost what 
books we had." 

Here lost has for its object some words understood, which the mind 
readily suggests. But if we insert them, the other part of the construction 
is immediately changed. " We lost [those books] which [ ] we had." What 
books is allowable only when the corresponding antecedent words are left 
out. 

That, as a relative, takes the place of either who or 
which. 

TJiat is used in speaking either of persons or of things ; as, 
" The best boy that lives," " The same book that was lost," and it 
is used in both numbers ; as, " The best boys that live," " The 
same books that were lost." 

The word that is used in three senses. 1. Sometimes it has the 
meaning of who or which; as, "The best boy that lives;" and 
then it is a Relative Pronoun. 2. Sometimes it points out a 
noun; as, that boy; and then it is an Adjective Pronoun. 3. 
Sometimes it shows the dependence of one verb upon another; 
as, He wished that he had done it ; and then it is a Conjunction. 
5 D 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

What and that are indeclinable. 

Who and which are alike in both numbers, and are 
thus declined : 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom. 



Norn, which 
Poss. whose 
Obj. which. 



Compound Relatives. 

The Compound Relatives are six, namely, whoever, who- 
soever, whichever, whichsoever, ivhatever, whatsoever. 

They are formed by adding ever and soever to the rel- 
atives who, which, and what. 

These Compounds are sometimes separated by an intervening noun; as, 
" Into whose house soever ye enter/' 

Whosoever is regularly declined like who ; thus, 

Sing, and Plur. 

Nom. whosoever 
Poss. whosesoever 
Obj. whomsoever. 

The other Compound Relatives are indeclinable. 

Like the relative what, the Compound Relatives are for the 
most part used when the related noun or pronoun is omitted; as, 
" Whosoever committeth sin [he] is the servant of sin," " Whatever 
is evil [it] should be avoided." 

Sometimes, however, for greater emphasis, especially in ancient- 
writings, the related noun or pronoun is expressed ; as, " Blessed 
is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me," " Whosoever will, 
let him take of the water of life." 

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever are also used 
as adjective pronouns; as, " Whichever side you choose, you are 
sure to win." 

Whether (meaning which one of the two) is now obsolete, which 
being used in its place. Whether (a Conjunction) is still in use. 



* 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 51 

Whoso, formerly used for ivhoever, or whosoever, is also now ob- 
solete. 

Interrogatives and Responsives. • 

In ashing questions, who, which, and what are called 
Interrogatives. 

In answering questions, who, which, and what are called 
Responsives. 

As Interrogatives, who, which, and what have no antecedent, but 
relate to a word subsequent, contained in the answer. Thus, " WJw 
did it? John.' 9 

As responsives, who, which, and what seem to relate to no word, 
either antecedent or subsequent. Thus, in the response, " I do not 
know who wrote it," supplying an antecedent changes the meaning. 
" I do not know the person who wrote it," means, I am not acquainted 
with him, which is quite a different idea. 

Which and what, when used as Interrogatives, or Responsives, 
or when joined with ever and soever, apply to persons as well as 
things; as, Which of them did it? John. What is he? A 
lawyer. 

The Eesponsive used in answering a question must be the same 
as the one used in asking it ; thus, Who wrote the book ? I do 
not know who wrote it. WJiich of the gentlemen was it ? I do 
not know which of them it was. What is he ? I do not know 
what he is. 

In asking about persons, who inquires for the name ; as, "Who 
wrote the book? Mr. Webster;" which asks for the particular 
individual, where there are several persons of the same name; as, 
" Wliich of the Websters wrote it? Noah Webster; " what asks 
for the person's character or occupation; as, " What was Mr. 
Webster? A lexicographer. " 

Note. — A Eelative Pronoun is always of the same gender, 
number, and person as its antecedent. 

Models for Parsing. — "John, who was at school, wrote a 
letter to his father." " Who " (1.) is a relative pronoun, relating 
to "John" for its antecedent; (2.) it is in the third person, (3.) 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

singular number, (4.) and masculine gender, to agree with "John ;" 
and (5.) it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb " was." 

"Give me what I want." "What" (1.) is a relative pronoun, 
relating to "that" or some other like antecedent omitted ; (2.) 
it is in the third person, (3.) singular number, (4.) and neuter 
gender, to agree with the omitted antecedent; and (5.) it is in 
the objective case, object of the verb " want." 

"We lost what books we had." "What" is a relative, used as 
an adjective pronoun, and as such qualifies " books." 

" Whoever hopes to win the prize, must labor hard." " Who- 
ever" (1.) is a compound relative pronoun, composed of who and 
ever ; (2.) it relates to " person " or some other like word omitted, 
which omitted word is the subject of the verb " must labor ; " (3.) 
"whoever" is in the third person, (4.) singular number, (5.) 
common gender, to agree with the omitted antecedent; and. (6.) 
it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "hopes." 

"Who wrote the letter? John." "Who" is an interrogative 
pronoun, relating to the subsequent word "John;" it is in the 
third person, singular number, and masculine gender, to agree 
with " John;" and is in the nominative case, subject of the verb 
" wrote." 

" Who wrote the letter? " " Who " is an interrogative pronoun, 
relating to some noun contained in the answer, and not yet given ; 
its person, number, and gender, therefore, cannot be determined ; 
it is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "wrote." 

" I do not know who wrote it." " Who " is a responsive pro- 
noun, not relating to any word, either antecedent or subsequent; 
its person, number, and gender cannot be determined; it is in 
the nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote." 

Parsing" Exercises. — Parse all the pronouns, Eelative, Com- 
pound Relative, Interrogative, and Responsive, in the following 
sentences : 

In this country in which we live, every one that is a citizen 
can enjoy what in other countries is enjoyed by only a favored 
few. The President whom we have just chosen to rule over us 
is a living example of what the poorest man may achieve. 
Whoever has the ability to rise, is in no way checked by a gov- 
ernment which affords equal protection to all. 

By what slow degrees the little acorn becomes the mighty 
oak! 




ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 53 

Whatever skill I have in composition, is due to the manner in 
which I was trained. 

In the haste and confusion, I could not see by whom it was 
that he was struck. 

What happened to you and your sister on your way to school? 

Parse each of the Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, and Personal 
Pronouns in the foregoing sentences. 

III. ADJECTIVE PRONOUN^ 

The Adjective Pronouns are so called because they 
qualify or limit a noun, as an adjective does. 

The proper rank of the class of words here called Adjective Pronouns 
is a matter about which there is a good deal of difference of opinion. They 
have the construction of adjectives, being always connected with a noun, 
expressed or understood. At the same time, they are used without the 
noun, and instead of it, in such a way, and to so much greater extent 
than ordinary adjectives, as to give them decidedly a Pronominal character. 
They seem in fact to hold a sort of middle position between adjectives and 
pronouns. Hence, they are called by some, Pronominal Adjectives; by 
others, Adjective Pronouns. I adhere to the latter name, because it has 
been admitted into the grammars of almost all languages, ancient and 
modern, and because I deem any change of established nomenclature a 
serious evil, not to be incurred unless for the most urgent reasons. In this 
case, no substantial error seems likely to arise from classing these words 
under either head. The principal point for the learner is to know which 
the words are, and to have some tolerably accurate name by which to call 
them. 

The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into three 
kinds or classes ; viz. Distributive, Demonstrative, and 
Indefinite. 

Note. — My, thy, his, he? 1 , its, our, your, and their (which have 
been given as personal pronouns in the possessive case) are some- 
times called Possessive Adjective Pronouns. 

I. DISTRIBUTIVES. 

The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are each, every, 
either, neither. 



54 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 

These are called Distributives, because they refer separately 
and singly to each person or thing of a number of persons or 
things. The Distributive Adjective Pronouns, therefore, are all 
in the singular number. 

Each is used when speaking of two or more. Example : "Each 
of you must go directly home." This will be correct whether it 
is addressed to two persons, or to more than two. 

Every is never used except when speaking of more than two. 
Example: "Every one of you must go directly home." This 
would not be correct if addressed to only two persons. 

Each and every mean all that make up the number, although 
taken separately. 

Either means one or the other, but not both. It is used, there- 
fore, when speaking of but two persons or things. 

Neither means not either. 

II. DEMONSTRATIVES. 

The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are this and 
that, with their plurals, these and those. 

They are called Demonstratives, because they point out in a 
definite manner the objects to which they relate; as, "This boy 
recited well, but that boy did not ; " " These men are officers, but 
those men are privates.'' 

The Demonstratives this and these, are applied to near objects ; 
that and those to objects that are distant. 

In contrast, that refers to the first mentioned, this to the last ; 
as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; that [wealth] 
tends to excite pride, this [poverty] to discontent." 

III. INDEFINITES. 

The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are any, all, such, 
some, both, one, none, other, another. 

They are called Indefinites, because they point out in an 
indefinite manner the objects to which they relate. 

One, other, another are sometimes used as nouns. When thus 
used, they are declined. Thus : 



ETYMOLOGY — VEEB6. 55 

r Nom. One r Nom. Other 

Sing. < Poss. One's Sing. < Poss. Other's 

lObj. One lObj. Other 

r Nom. Ones c Nom. Others 

Plur. \ Poss. Ones' Plur. I Poss. Others' 

lObj. Ones. lObj. Others. 

Another is merely the article an and other, and is used only 
in the singular number, Nom. Another, Poss. Another's, Obj. 
Another. 

Parsing Exercises. — Parse "this," in the sentence, "John 
wrote this letter." 

Model. — "This" (1.) is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, 
(2.) singular number, (3.) and belongs to or limits the noun 
"letter," 

Parse the Pronouns, Personal, Relative, and Adjective, in the 
following sentences : 

That class of society in which only those who are wealthy are 
members, and in which each individual possesses no other merit, 
may be respected, but it has not the highest claims to respecta- 
bility. All wise and good men, of any class, or of whatever rank, 
or of either of the two grades which the world has made, — the 
rich and the poor, — are worthy of respect. Such men receive the 
respect of all. 



V. VERBS. 

A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as, " John 
strikes the table." 

Affirmation is true of no other part of speech, and may be considered the 
distinguishing characteristic of the verb. The general idea, which in a 
verb is expressed in the form of an assertion, may be conceived of in 
various other forms, and so become successively different parts of speech. 
Thus, for instance, take the general idea of sleeping. If we think or speak 
of the name of this idea, it is a Noun, as, sleep. If the idea is connected 
with any subject as one of its accidents, qualities, or attributes, but without 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

any affirmation, it is an Adjective, as, the sleepy boy. If the idea is affirmed 
or predicated of the subject of discourse, it is a verb, as, the boy sleeps. The 
idea may be introduced as a modification of some other quality or attribute, 
and then it is an Adverb, as, the boy acts sleepily. In all these instances, the 
same general idea exists as a common substratum, or groundwork. That 
which distinguishes one part of speech from another, is not that one expresses 
some idea of an act or a substance and another does not (which is not true) ; 
but that an idea, when conceived and spoken of as the subject of discourse, 
is a Noun; when conceived and spoken of as an attribute or quality of some 
subject, is an Adjective; when affirmed or predicated, is a Verb. The fol- 
lowing, from the Latin, is a good example of the same general idea being 
conceived of under different forms and becoming successively different parts 
of speech : " Docere docilem facile est, ut docilitatis suae edat documentum, 
celeri apprehensione doctrinse, fiatque vir doctus, et sentiat docte." The 
distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost 
sight of. See remarks upon the Adjective, pp. 40, 41. 



I. ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 

"Verbs, have the attributes of Voice, Mood, Tense, 
Number, and Person. 

Certain parts of the verb also are called Participles. 

i. VOICE. 

Voice is that attribute of the verb which denotes 
whether the subject or nominative of the verb acts, or is 
acted upon. 

Verbs have two voices, the Active, and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject or nominative acts, or does the 
thing mentioned ; as, " John strikes the table." 

The Passive Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject or nominative is acted upon; as, 
" The table is struck by John." 

Explanation. — Take the sentence, " John strikes the table." The sub- 
ject or nominative of the verb is John, who performs the action. It is 
of him that the assertion is made. But suppose the same action to be 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 57 

expressed thus : (t The table is struck by John." Here, the subject or nom- 
inative of the verb is changed. It is of the table that the assertion is now 
made. In the first form of the sentence, the subject of the verb acts ; in the 
second form, the subject is acted upon. That attribute of a verb by which 
it thus denotes whether the subject of the affirmation acts, or is acted upon, 
is called Voice. 

II. MOOD. 

Mood is that attribute of a verb by which it denotes 
the manner or way in which the assertion is expressed. 

Note. — Mood is only another form. of the word " mode," and 
signifies manner, or way. 

Verbs have five Moods, the Indicative, the Subjunc- 
tive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

It is the office of the verb to assert or affirm something. If this asser- 
tion or affirmation is limited to some subject or nominative, the verb is said 
to he finite. The assertion may be connected with the subject in four dif- 
ferent ways, giving rise to the four finite modes or moods. 1. The asser- 
tion may be expressed directly and without limitation, and then it is in the 
Indicative mood; as, " The boy sleeps." 2. It may be expressed as an un- 
certainty, and then it is in the Subjunctive mood; as, "If the boy sleep." 
3. It may be expressed as a possibility, etc., and then it is in the Potential 
mood ; as, " The boy may sleep." 4. It may be expressed as a command, 
etc., and then it is in the Imperative mood; as, "Sleep, boy." Sometimes 
the assertion is not limited to any particular subject, and then it is said to 
be in the Infinitive, that is, the unlimited mood; as, "To sleep." 

The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation; as, He writes. 

Note. — The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct 
questions; as, Does the sun shine? Does my mother love me? 
This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. 

The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed as an uncertainty ; as, 
If he write. 



58 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 

The Subjunctive mood is generally preceded by a conjunction, 
such as if, though, although, unless, except, whether, lest. 

Sometimes, in the Past Tense, by transposing the words and putting the 
verb or a part of it before the nominative, the verb becomes Subjunctive 
without the use of a preceding conjunction. Thus : " Had I a book, I would 
study the lesson," u Were I sure of the fact, I would consent." These 
expressions mean, "If I had a book," "If I were sure of the fact," etc. 

The Subjunctive mood is always accompanied by another verb 
in some other mood. Without this it cannot make complete 
sense. Thus, " If he write carefully, he will succeed." 

The Potential Mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, or ob- 
ligation ; as, he can write ; he may write ; he must write. 

Note. — The Potential mood is also used in asking questions; 
as, May I write ? Must I write ? etc. 

The Imperative Mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit ; as, Write 
the copy according to the directions; Father, forgive us; 
go, if you desire it. 

The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which 
is not limited to a subject, or which has no subject; as, 
To write. 

Note. — The word Infinitive is from the Latin in, not, and 
finis, end or limit. 

III. TENSE. 

Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- 
presses distinctions of Time. ■• 

Note. — The word Tense is from the Latin tempus, time. 
There are six Tenses, the Present, the Past, and the 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 59 

Future; the Present- Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and the 
Future-Perfect. 

The Present, Past, and Future are called Primary 
Tenses ; The Present-Perfect, Past-Perfect, and Future- 
Perfect are called Secondary Tenses. 

The names originally given to the Tenses, in works on English Gram- 
mar, were taken from the Latin Grammar, and were as follows : 
Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First Future, Second Future. Two 
of these terms, namely, Imperfect and Perfect, which answered well enough 
for the Latin, have been found inconvenient and confusing, as applied to 
the English, and are now pretty generally abandoned. 

The Latin Imperfect expressed an idea for which our only English repre- 
sentative is a compound, known as the Progressive Form, while the Latin 
Perfect expressed the two ideas which in English were called Imperfect and 
Perfect. Thus, the Latin Imperfect, scribebam, meant what we express by 
the Progressive form, I was writing. This Progressive form in English 
is not limited, as it is in the Latin, to a single tense, but runs through the 
whole verb : I am writing, I was writing, I shall be writing, etc. Again, 
the Latin Perfect, scripsi, expressed two distinct ideas, I wrote, and I have 
written, which in the old English grammars were called respectively the Im- 
perfect and the Perfect tenses. Inevitable confusion was the result of this 
nomenclature. 

In adapting the nomenclature of the Tenses in English to the actual 
forms and meanings, we observe that there are three natural and primary 
divisions of time, the Present, the Past, and the Future, giving rise to the 
three primary Tenses, as represented by I write, I wrote, I shall write ; and 
to each of these is joined a secondary Tense, represented severally by I have 
written, I had written, I shall have written, and each expressing, in addition 
to the time of its primary tense, the idea of completed action. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply present time ; as, I write. 

Note 1. — The Present Tense often expresses what is habitual, 
universal, or permanent, as, "The sun gives light by day, the 
moon by night ; " " Charity thinketh no evil." 

Note 2. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as, 
when, after, as soon as, etc., the Present Tense sometimes conveys 
the idea of that which is yet future; as, "He will go as soon 
as he is ready." 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which de- 
notes simply past time ; as, I wrote. 

Hote. — This Tense was formerly called the Imperfect Tense. 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply future time. 

The Present-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what is past and finished, but which is con- 
nected also with the present time ; as, I have written. 

The Present-Perfect expresses what continues to the present time in its 
consequences, although we know that the period of the action was completed 
long ago ; as, " Cicero has written orations." We cannot in like manner 
say, " Cicero has written poems. " His poems are lost, his orations still ex- 
ist. Cicero, the poet, perished long since, but Cicero, the orator, is still ex- 
tant, and may be conceived as existing and acting in a period extending 
down to the present moment. Eor the same reason, we cannot say, " The 
Druids have claimed great powers," for they were long since extinct, and 
they have left no writing or other instrument in which such claim can be 
conceived as now set forth. We may, however, say, " Mahomet has claimed 
great powers," for the claim still exists in the Koran. An author is uni- 
versally considered as living while his writings live. Hence he may be 
considered as having done a thing in a period of time not yet expired. 

Hote. — When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as 
when, after, as soon as, etc., the Present-Perfect Tense, like the 
Present, often denotes something yet to come ; as, " When I 
have finished my letter, I will attend to your request." 

The Past-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what was past and finished, before some 
other event which is also past; as, I had written the 
letter, before it was called for. 
w y^&The Future-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes a future time pr\or to some other time 
which is itself future ; as, I shall have written the letter 
before it will be called for. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 61 

Remarks on the Moods and Tenses. 

1. The Number of the Tenses in the Different Moods. — The In- 
dicative Mood has all six of the tenses; the Subjunctive has two, the 
Present and the Past ; the Potential has four, the Present, the Past, the 
Present-Perfect, and the Past-Perfect; the Imperative has only the Present; 
and the Infinitive has the Present and the Present-Perfect. 

2. The Tense, Person, and Number of the Imperative Mood. — A 
command, an exhortation, or an entreaty, is necessarily a present act. The 
Imperative mood, therefore, is always in the Present Tense. The command, 
exhortation, or entreaty, being spoken to some party, is necessarily in the 
Second Person. It will be Singular or Plural according to circumstances, 
as its nominative is usually either thou, or you, understood. Thus, "Sit 
still," if addressed to one person, is Singular, and means, " Sit thou still ;" 
if addressed to more than one, it is Plural, and means, " Sit you still." 
Whether the nominative to the Imperative mood is thou understood, or you, 
must be learned, in each particular case, from other words in the sentence. 
"Brethren, pray for us." Here, the word " brethren" shows that more 
than one are addressed. Therefore, the verb is plural, and its nominative 
is " you " understood. " Father, forgive them." Here, the word " Father" 
shows that only one is addressed. The verb, therefore, is singular, and its 
nominative is " thou" understood. 

Formerly, the nominative of the Imperative mood was sometimes ex- 
pressed ; as, "Sit ye here, while I go and pray yonder;" "Sit thou on my 
right hand." 

3. The Tenses of the Potential and Subjunctive Moods. — The Ten- 
ses in the Subjunctive and Potential moods are used with less precision 
than in the Indicative. This arises in part from the meaning of some of 
the auxiliaries and conjunctions, which modify the time expressed in the 
affirmation ; and in part from mere usage, of which no other account can be 
given, than that the particular form does in fact convey a certain idea of 
time. Still, in very many cases, the tenses of the Subjunctive and Po- 
tential moods express the same distinctions of time as the tenses of the 
same name in the Indicative. It has not been thought expedient, there- 
fore, to change the names of the tenses, or to invent new names, to suit 
every change of meaning produced by custom or by particular combination 
of words, but to name the tense in every case by its form. 

Thus, in the sentence, " If he continue impenitent, he will perish," the 
accompanying words show that the meaning of "continue" is future, 
although its form is that of the present. It is probably only an abbrevia- 
tion for "shall continue." So, also, in the sentence, "If I had the money, 
I would pay you," had undoubtedly expresses present time, not past; still, 
it has the form of the past, and should be called accordingly. Thus, also, 
the auxiliaries might, could, loould, and should, are often used as expressing 
the primary meaning of these words, that is, simply possibility, liberty, 
6 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

willingness, or obligation, without distinguishing the time, or, rather, 
leaving the time to be determined by the other woVds in the sentence. 
They may therefore be used with equal propriety, whether the meaning is 
present, past, or future. Thus, " He could do it now, if he would " (Pres- 
ent) ; " He could not do it yesterday, because his father would not let him " 
(Past) ; " He could do it to-morrow, if his father would let him " (Future). 

4. Peculiar use of the Verbs To Have and To Be. — There is a 
peculiar usage of to have and to be that needs to be noted. Were is often 
used with a potential meaning, or in the sense of would be ; thus, "I were 
an idiot, thus to speak," that is, "I would be an idiot," etc. In like man- 
ner, had is used in the sense of would have ; thus, "It had been good for 
that man if he had never been born," that is, " It would have been 
good," etc. 

There is another use of had still more remarkable. It is where had bears 
the meaning simply of would ; as, " I had as lief not be, as live to be," etc. 



IV. PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is that form of the verb which partakes 
of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective. 

Note. — The word Participle is from the Latin particeps, par- 
taker of. 

Nature of the Participles. — The Participles contain an affirmation in 
the form of a supposition, or in a kind of incomplete or suspended state. 
Thus, "The man having finished his letter will carry it to the post-office." 
Here, the participle " having finished " contains precisely the same meaning 
that would have been conveyed by the expression, "when he has finished." 
It is the affirmation of the verb subject to some limitation, or in a state of 
suspense. The participles also express distinctions of time, which is another 
of the peculiar properties of the verb. Hence they are, by almost common 
consent, considered parts of the verb. They partake also of the nature of 
the adjective, inasmuch as they are joined to a noun in construction, in the 
same manner as an adjective is. 

The Participles are three, the Present, the Past or 
Perfect, and the Compound-Perfect. 

The Present Participle denotes that which is now in 
progress ; as, going, being, living, working, etc. The 
Present participles all end in ing. 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 63 

The Past or Perfect Participle denotes that which 
is complete or finished ; as, written, stolen, added. 

The Compound -Perfect Participle denotes that 
which is finished before something else mentioned ; as, 
having written, having stolen, having added. 

Many mistakes have arisen from supposing the English participles to cor- 
respond, more nearly than they in truth do, to the Latin participles. In 
Latin, excepting in deponent verbs, the Present participle is always active, 
the Past always passive. Hence, some grammarians assume the same to 
be always true in English. They take for granted that the participle in ing 
is essentially and necessarily active, and that the participle in ed is essen- 
tially and necessarily passive. Neither of these is true. 

The Past participle is extensively used in making the compound forms 
of the active voice. When we analyze one of these compound expressions, 
as for instance, he had concealed, we call had the auxiliary, and con- 
cealed the past participle. But the force of the participle in this combina- 
tion is different from what it is when found in the passive voice, or when 
standing alone. Thus, in the sentence, " He had a dagger concealed under 
his cloak," concealed is passive, signifying being concealed ; but in the former 
combination, it goes to make up a form the force of which is active. This 
is obvious the moment we attempt to translate the two expressions into any 
language where the difference is distinguished by a difference of termination. 
Thus, in Latin, "He had concealed the dagger," would be " pugionem abdi- 
derat ; " but, " He had the dagger concealed," would be "pugionem abditnm 
habuit." It should be remarked, however, that this participle in the active 
is found only in combination. Whenever it stands alone, to be parsed as a 
participle, it is passive. 

A usage similar in some respects prevails in regard to the Present parti- 
ciple in ing. When it stands by itself, as a participle, it is invariably active. 
But in combination, in making what is called the Progressive Form of the 
verb, it is not invariably active,* as, in the phrase, " The house is building." 
I know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much 
assailed, and an attempt, to some extent successful, has been made to intro- 
duce the form "is being built." But, in the first place, the old mode of ex- 
pression is a well established usage of the language, being found in our best 
and most correct writers. Secondly, the same reasoning which has led to the 
expression " is being built," would lead equally to such cumbersome forms as 
"was being built," "has been being built," "had been being built," " shall 
be being built," "shall have been being built," "might have been being 
built," etc. Thirdly, the same mode of proceeding, which requires us in this 
case to deny any force to usage, and to consider the termination ing always 
active, because it is generally so, would lead, if carried out, to still wider con- 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sequences. For instance, when we say, " The house is building," the advocates 
of the new theory ask, " building what ? " We might ask in turn, when you 
say, " Wheat sells well," sells what ? If usage allows us to say, " Wheat 
sells at a dollar," in a sense that is not active, why may it not also allow us 
to say, " Wheat is selling at a dollar," in a sense that is not active ? 



V. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have variations of form, to correspond with the 
number and person of their subject. These variations 
are called the Numbers and Persons of the verb. 

Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural ; and 
three Persons, First, Second, and Third. Thus : 

Singular. Plural. 



First Person. I am. 
Second Person. Thou art. 
Third Person. He is. 



First Person. We are. 
Second Person. You are. 
Third Person. They are. 



II. CLASSES OF VERBS. 

Verbs are divided into the following classes : Trans- 
itive and Intransitive ; Regular and Irregular ; 
Impersonal, Defective, and Auxiliary. 

I. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

A Transitive Verb is one which requires an objective 
case to complete the meaning ; as, James writes a letter. 

An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require 
an objective case to complete the meaning; as, John 
sleeps. 

Explanation. — In the sentences, "James touched Peter," 
" James touched him" if the object is left out, and we say simply 
"James touched ," the meaning is incomplete. 

Note. — The word Transitive is from the Latin trans, across, 
over to, and ire. Hum, to go. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 65 

Remarks on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

1. Many verbs are used either transitively or intransitively ; as, 
" He reads well," " He reads a book." 

2. Intransitive verbs are not used in the Passive Voice : thus, we 
may say to laugh, but not to be laughed. 

3. When verbs usually intransitive are followed by certain prep- 
ositions, the verb and preposition sometimes form a kind of com- 
pound verb, which is transitive, and admits of a passive voice: 

thus, we say to laugh at a person (Act.) ; to be laughed at by 
him, (Pass.) 

4. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes take after them an ob- 
jective of kindred signification. In that case they are transitive, 
and admit of a passive voice ; as, " I run a race," " A race is 
run." 

5. Transitive verbs in English are sometimes used without 
an objective case, in a sense between the active and passive 
voices ; as, / taste the apple ; the apple is tasted by me ; the apple 
tastes sweet. 

There are two classes of verbs perfectly distinct from each other, viz. : 
Those which do, and those which do not, require an objective case in order 
to complete the meaning. The terms active and neuter, formerly used to 
express this distinction, are now generally abandoned. A strong objection 
to them was, that, in many verbs which require an objective case, it is at 
least doubtful whether any action, in the ordinary sense of that term, takes 
place; while, on the contrary, a large proportion of the verbs called neuter, 
and which, by the definition, ought to express no action, do yet in fact 
express action in the highest degree, as, to run) to walk, to swim, etc. An- 
other and still stronger objection was that the terms active and neuter, as 
applied to verbs, produced confusion and doubt about the distinctions of 
active and passive, as applied to Voice. It needs no argument to prove that 
I am struck is just as really a modification of to strike, as I have struck is; 
and yet, under the old classification of active, passive, and neuter, the pupil 
was taught to consider these forms as two verbs belonging to different 
classes. / have struck, for instance, was called an active verb ; / am struck, 
a passive verb ; and I walk, a neuter verb. Under the present arrangement, 
the terms Active and Passive express a distinction, not of verbs, but of 
Voice. The active voice of a verb is distinguished from its passive voice, 
just as one of its moods or tenses is distinguished from any other mood or 
tense. There would seem to be no more reason for dividing verbs into 
active and passive verbs, than for dividing them into present verbs, past 
verbs, indicative verbs, potential verbs, etc. 

6* E v 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verbs may indeed be divided into those which express action, and those 
which do not express action. But the number of the latter will be very 
small, including the verbs to be, to exist, and some few others ', and the dis- 
tinction, when conceded, will be of no available use for any of the prac- 
tical purposes of grammar. Some verbs will be found requiring an objec- 
tive case, in which it is difficult to perceive any action, while others express- 
ing intense activity will be found without an objective case. 

The terms Transitive and Intransitive have been used, because in very 
many, perhaps a majority, of the verbs which take an objective case, some, 
action may be conceived as passing from the agent to the object; as, James 
strikes the table, Here, the act of striking passes from the agent, James, to 
the object, which is the table. There are many cases, however, in which 
such a transition cannot readily be traced ; as, he enjoys repose. Still, the 
terms seem the least objectionable that have yet been proposed, especially 
if limited by their definition to the classification really meant, viz. : to 

VERBS WHICH DO, AND THOSE WHICH DO NOT, REQUIRE AN OBJECTIVE CASE. In 

this sense, the distinction is one easily made, universally recognized, and 
of great practical importance, although the terms employed to express it 
are not as entirely accurate as could be desired. 

II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Tense and 
Past Participle by the addition of d or ed to its present 
tense; as, Present, love; Past, loved; Past Participle, 
loved. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its Past 
Tense and Past Participle by the addition of d or ed to its 
present tense ; as, Present, write ; Past, wrote ; Past Par- 
ticiple, written. 

The Verbs now called Irregular are in fact the remains of the original 
and oldest form of the English verb, that known as the Strong Conjugation. 
It was formed mainly by internal changes in the stem of the word, as drive 
drove, sing sang, steal stole, rather than by a suffix. In like manner, the 
few nouns said to be irregular, as man men, tooth teeth, etc., are the remains 
of the earliest mode of forming the plural. 

Some of the verbs called Irregular are really parts of different defective 
verbs, put together to make one whole. Thus, go and gone are the Present 
and Participle of a verb whose Past tense has become obsolete, while went 
is the Past tense of another verb of like meaning. In like manner, am, 
was, been, are severally parts of three distinct verbs, each wanting its other 
parts, and each expressing the common idea of existence. 



: 


ETYMOLOGY — 


VERBS, 




The Irregular Verbs. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth), bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear (to carry). 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden 


Betide, 


betid, betided, 


betid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture) 


dared, durst, 


dared. 



67 



68 



ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 



Present. 


Past. 




Perfect Part. 


Deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 




done. 


Draw, 


drew, 




drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed 


, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


Drink, 


drank. 




drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 




driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, 


dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 




eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 




fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 




fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 




felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 




fought. 


Find, 


found, 




found. 


Flee, 


fled, 




fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 




flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 




flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 




forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 




frozen. 


Get, 


got, 




got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 




given. 


Go, 


went, 




gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 




graven, graved. 


Grind, 


ground, 




ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 




grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, hung, 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 




had. 


Hear, 


heard, 




heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, ] 


liove, 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 




hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 




hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 




hit. 


Hold, 


held, 




held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 




hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 




kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, 


knelt, 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 





ETYMOLOGY- 


-VERBS. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


/Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laded, laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, * 


let, 


let. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen (to coop), 


penned, pent, 


penned, pent. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, quitted, 


quit* quitted. 


Eead, 


read, 


read. 


Eend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Eid, 


rid, ridded, 


rid, ridded. 


Eide, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Eing, 


rang, rung, 


rung. . 


Eise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Eive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Eun, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. / 



69 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, speeded, 


sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spjit. 


Split, 


split, splitted, 


split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay, 


stayed, staid, 


stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewed, strewn, 


Stride, 


strid, strode, 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 



71 



Present. 

Strive, 


Past. 

strove, 


Perfect Part. 

striven. 


Swear, 

Sweat, 
Sweep, 
Swell, 


swore, 

sweat, sweated, 

swept, 

swelled, 


sworn. 

sweat, sweated. 

swept. 

swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 
Take, 


swung, 
took, 


swung, 
taken. 


Teach, 
Tear, 


taught, 
tore, 


taught, 
torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 
Thrive, 


thought, 
thrived, 


thought, 
thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 
Wet, 


wept, 

wet, wetted, 


wept. 

w r et, wetted. 


Win, 
Wind, 


won, 
wound, 


won. 
wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wring, 
Write, 


wrung, 

wrote, 


wrung, 
written. 



III. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

An Impersonal Verb is one which is never used ex- 
cept with the pronoun it for its subject; as, " It snows." 

Note. — We never say, "I snow," "Thou snowest," "He 
snows," etc. 



In the earlier forms of the English, Impersonal verbs were of very fre- 
quent occurrence, as much so as in Latin, and the construction was precisely 
like that of the Latin Impersonals, the verb having no subject, and the 
noun or pronoun representing the subject being in the dative. Of the once 
extensive array of words in this form, all that now remain in English are 
the two compounds, me-seems and me- thinks. In both these, the me was 
originally a separate word, and was in the dative case, meaning to me. The 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thinks, of the second compound, is not, as it seems to be, from the word 
signifying to think, which was thencan, but from thincan, which meant to 
seem. The two compounds, therefore, meant originally precisely the same, 
namely, to-me-seems, or, transposing, seems to me; and the exact, literal 
equivalent of each, in the Latin,, is mihi videtur. 

The forms in modern English, which are called Impersonal, such as it 
snows, it rains, etc., are not, strictly speaking, Impersonal, as each has an 
indefinite subject it. The only strictly Impersonal verbs that we now have 
are the two compounds, me-seems and me-thinks, already noticed. 

IV. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A Defective Verb is one that is not used in all the 
Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, quoth, etc. 

V. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
Moods and Tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are, shall, may, can, must, be, do, 
have, and will. 

Remarks on trie Auxiliary Verbs. 

1. These are called Auxiliary, or helping verbs, because by their 
help the other verbs form most of their moods and tenses. 

2. Be, do, have, and sometimes will, are also used as 
principal verbs; as, they may be here; they do nothing; they 
have nothing; they will it to be so. As principal verbs, they 
have all the moods and tenses which other verbs have. 

3. Be, as an Auxiliary, is used in all its moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons, in forming the passive voice of other 
verbs ; as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved, etc. 

4. Have, do, will, shall, may, can, as Auxiliaries, are used in 
only two forms, and must in only one form, viz. : 

Present. Have, do, will, shall, can, may, must. 
Past. Had, did, would, should, could, might. 

5. These forms taken by themselves may be considered 
as the Present and Past, but they do not always form the present 
and past when in combination with the other Auxiliaries or with 
the principal verb. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 73 

6. Shall, may, can, and must are defective, having only the 
tenses given above, and are never used except as Auxiliaries. 

It would be a mistake to suppose, as is sometimes done, that the Auxil- 
iaries are mere inventions, introduced into the language for the purpose of 
making out the necessary forms. There is abundant evidence that the aux- 
iliaries were originally independent verbs, and that the verbs following the 
auxiliaries were in the infinitive mood, to being omitted. " To," indeed, as a 
sign of the infinitive, was introduced into the language only in the later 
stages of its history. Originally, " to " was never found in connection with 
the infinitive. Even now it is not so found after some verbs; as, "I bade 
him follow/' Here, "follow" is recognized as being in the infinitive, just 
as much as "to follow" is in the sentence, "I told him to follow." So also 
"I saw him (to) follow" "They need not (to) follow," etc. The auxiliary 
"shall," meant, originally, "to be obliged." "I shall (to) write," meant, 
"I am obliged to write." So long as "shall" retained its original meaning 
and force, it was quite proper to parse "write" as being in the infinitive 
mood, as we do the verb " follow " in the previous examples. In like man- 
ner, all the compound tenses may be analyzed. This analysis, and the 
study of the proper force of the auxiliaries by themselves, are important as 
affording the best clue to the true meaning and use of the various moods 
and tenses. 

It would be an equal mistake, on the other hand, because these compound 
forms may be thus analyzed and traced to original independent elements in 
the language, to deny their present existence as compounds, and to assert, 
as some recent grammarians have done, that there are in English but two 
tenses, the present and the past. As in chemistry, an alkali and an acid, 
when combined, form a compound with properties not found in either of 
the ingredients, so in language, particular combinations of words acquire 
by use new meanings not possessed by the words taken singly. The phrase 
"I shall be" meant, originally, "I am obliged to be," and the connection 
between these two ideas may be very ingeniously and truly traced. But 
the phrase now expresses simply and absolutely the idea of futurity, with- 
out any sort of obligation. The man who says, " I shall be in New York to- 
morrow," conveys by the words shall be precisely what he would by the 
Latin ero. The former is just as much the future tense of the verb to be as 
the latter is of the verb esse. To parse shall as a verb in the present tense, 
and be in the infinitive, would be just as erroneous as to deny Person to the 
Hebrew verb, because the forms of the persons may be analyzed, and the 
personal pronouns clearly detected in the terminations, and separated, if 
need be, from the rest of the verb. 

The same reasoning will apply to the proposed analysis of the other 
compound forms, do love, did love, have loved, have been, etc. The object 
aimed at is simplification. The writers in question seem, at first sight, to 
7 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



accomplish their end, for they apparently despatch the whole verh, moods, 
tenses, and all, in a single sweeping paragraph. But in the end, the learner 
finds he has quite as much to learn in detached and unconnected parcels, as 
he had before under a systematic and orderly arrangement. He has gained 
the simplicity of the monosyllabic Chinese in exchange for the complex 
forms and combinations of the Arabic or the Greek. 

III. CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrange- 
ment of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 



1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



Conjugatipn of the verb To Be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Singular. 

1. I shall be. 

2. Thou wilt be. 

3. He will be. 



Singular. 

1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has been. 



Singular. 

1. I had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 

3. He had been. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We' shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. They will be. 

Present- Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 

Past- Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had been. 
2: You had been. 
3. They had been. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 



75 



Future- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



Singular. 

1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 

3. He may be. 



Singular. 

1. I might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 

3. He might be. 



Plural. 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. They might be. 



Present- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 

3. He might have been. 



Plural. 

1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 

3. They might have been. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be. Present-Perfect To have been. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present Being. Past or Perfect Been. 

Compound- Perfect Having been. 

Remarks on the Conjugation. 

1. In the formation of the Futures, we have two Auxiliaries, 
shall and will. For the expression of simple futurity, we use 
shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third Per- 
sons, as given in the table. On the other hand, by using will in 
the First Person, and shall in the Second and Third Persons, we 
express the various ideas of promise, command, obligation, etc. 
Thus : " I will be there " expresses a promise. " Thou shalt love 
the Lord thy God" is a command. "He shall do it" (i, e, I 
will make him) expresses obligation or necessity. 

2. The singular form, thou art, etc., is now used only in 
acts of worship, or on other solemn occasions. In ordinary 
discourse, in addressing one person, we say you are, you were, etc., 
the meaning being singular, but the form plural. 

3. In the third person, the nominative of the verb may 
be any of the personal pronouns, he, she, it, any of the relative 
pronouns, who, which, what, that, etc., or any noun. For conve- 
nience of recitation, one nominative only is inserted. 

4. In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be, 
In the Present tense, may, can, or must; 

In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should; 
In the Present-Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must have; 
In the Past-Perfect tense, might have, could have, would have, 
or should have, 

5. In conjugating the Subjunctive mood, the conjunction be- 
fore the verb may be if, though, although, unless, except, whether, 
lest, etc. For convenience in recitation, one conjunction only is 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 77 

used. It may also be conjugated in the Past tense by omitting 
the conjunction and transposing the nominative and verb. Thus: 
were I, wert thou, were he ; were we, were you, were they. 

By putting before a verb any conjunction expressing doubt or contin- 
gency, a form may be created which by some is called the Subjunctive mood. 
Such a form, requiring merely the prefixing of the conjunction, and involv- 
ing no change in the verb itself, may be continued through all the tenses of 
the Indicative, and even through the tenses of the Potential : Thus : Ind. 
If I am, if I was, if I shall be, if I have been, if I had been, if I shall have 
been ; Pot. If I may be, if I might be, if I may have been, if I might have 
been. This form, for the tenses at least of the Indicative, is by some called 
the Subjunctive mood. The propriety of this term is questionable. It seems 
best to limit the mood to those two tenses, the Present and the Past, in 
which there is some difference of form in the verb itself. 

It may be said, indeed, that the form if I am, cannot be Indicative, 
because it expresses doubt or contingency, instead of merely indicating or 
declaring. But it should be noticed, the doubt or contingency is expressed 
not by the verb, I am, but by the conjunction if The definition of the 
Indicative refers solely to the " form of the verb " itself, not to any of the 
circumstances that may be thrown around it by the interposition of other 
words, y^ 

Exercises. — Conjugate the verb "to be" through the Indica- 
tive mood, using "she" in the third person singular. 

Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " it " 
in the third person singular. 

Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " the 
man" for the subject in the singular, and "the men" for the 
subject in the plural. 

Conjugate the verb through the Subjunctive mood, using 
"though "instead of "if." 

Conjugate it in like manner, using any of the other conjunc- 
tions named. 

Conjugate it in the Potential mood, Present tense, using "can " 
instead of " may." Conjugate it, using " must." 

Conjugate it in the Past tense, using " could ; " using " would ; " 
using "should." 

Conjugate it in the Present- Perfect tense, using "can have;" 
using " must have." 

Conjugate it in the Past-Perfect tense, using "could have;" 
using " would have ; " using " should have." 
7* 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Conjugation of the verb To Love. 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 



Singular. 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 

3. He loved. 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall love. 

2. Thou wilt love. 

3. He will love. 



Singular. 

1. I have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved 

3. He has loved. 



Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We shall love. 

2. You will love. 

3. They will love. 

Present- Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. 

3. They have loved. 



Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 






ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 



79 



Singular. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou love. 

3. If he love. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Plural. 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved. 

2. If thou loved. 

3. If he loved. 



Singular. 

1. I may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 

3. He may love. 



Singular. 

1. I might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 

3. He might love. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 



1. «We may love. 

2. You may love. 

3. They may love. 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We might love. 

2. You might love. 

3. They might love. 



Present- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Past- Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 



Plural. 

1. We might have loved. 

2. You might have loved. 

3. They might have loved. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IMPEEATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense, 

Singular. 

Love, or love thou. 



Plural. 

Love, or love you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present To love. Present-Perfect. To have loved. 



PAETICIPLES. 



Present. Loving. 

Comp ound- Perfect. 



Past or Perfect. 
Having loved. 



Loved. 



II. PASSIVE VOICE. 



Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing 
before its Past Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons of the verb To be. 

Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 

3. He is loved. 



1. I was loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 

3. He was loved. 



Plural. 

1. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 
3- They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 



Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 81 

Present- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. ^ 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved, 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future- Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

ilar. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 







Past Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 

If I were loved. 
If thou wert loved. 
If he were loved. 


Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Present^ Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present To be loved. Present- Perfect. To have been loved. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Past or Perfect. Loved. 

Compound- Perfect. Having been loved. 

III. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that which repre- 
sents the action as in progress^ or incomplete. 

Note. — This is called sometimes the Progressive form, because 
it represents the action as still in progress ; sometimes, the Im- 
perfect form, because action in progress is necessarily incomplete; 
and sometimes the Definite form, because it marks the time of 
the action in every case with perfect definiteness and precision. 



ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83 

The Progressive form of any verb is made by placing before its 
Present Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and per- 
sons of the verb to be. Thus : I am writing, I was writing, I 
shall be writing, etc. It has not been thought necessary to cum- 
ber the text-book by inserting these forms in full. Any pupil 
can form them at will who has learned the conjugation of the 
verb to he. 

Exercises in the Progressive Form. 

Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses of the In- 
dicative mood, in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate " know " through the Subjunctive mood, Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate " write " through the Potential mood, Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate "stand" through the Imperative and Infinitive 
moods, Progressive form. 

Remark. — A verb in the Progressive form is always in the 
Active voice. 

IV. EMPHATIC FORM. 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the 
assertion is expressed with emphasis. 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by placing before it the 
verb do as an auxiliary. 

The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present and Past 
tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods, Active voice, 
and in the Imperative mood, both Active and Passive. 

Conjugation of the verb To Love, in the Emphatic 

Form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

{Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. If thou do love. 2. If you do love. 

3. If he do love. 3. If they do love. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I did love. 1. If we did love. 

2. If thou did love. 2. If you did love. 

3. If he did love. 3. If they did love. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Active — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. 

Passive — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 

Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — "James writes a letter." 
Parse " writes." 

Model. — " Writes " (1.) is a verb, it contains an assertion ; (2.) 
transitive, it requires an objective case after it; (3.) irregular, it 
does not form its past tense and past participle by the addition of d 
or ed (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Past P. written) ; (4.) active voice, it 
denotes that the nominative " James " acts or does the thing men- 
tioned; (5.) indicative mood, the assertion is expressed directly 
and without limitation ; (6. ) present tense, it denotes present time ; 
(7.) third person, singular number (I write, thou writest, he writes, 
or James writes) ; (8.) and has for its subject the noun James. 

Abbreviated Model.— "Writes" is (1.) a verb, (2.) transi- 
tive, (3.) irregular (write, wrote, written), (4.) active voice, (5.) 
indicative mood, (6.) present tense, (7.) third person, singular 
number, (8.) and has for its subject the noun James. 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 85 

Exercises. — Parse all the Verbs in the following sentences : 

A witty punster may afford amusement to persons, but amuse- 
ment is not the business of life, though it tends ever so much to 
relieve the mind. Therefore, do not consider him a model worthy 
of imitation. 

My son, wert thou a father, thou couldst understand the feelings 
of him who now mourns over the wrong which thou hast com- 
mitted. Had I been thy son, I think I would not only have been 
grieved on account of that which I had done, but also would have 
regretted that I had caused sorrow in the breast of him who loved 
me so tenderly. 

The miser will will his property to those who will perhaps use 
it for sinful purposes. Had he had less avarice, his happiness 
would have been increased. Do not do as he does, lest thou, like 
him, become a wretched man, and have to say, "I have been 
heaping up riches all my life, but I have not been increasing my 
happiness. Had I been adding to the happiness of others, and 
laying up treasures where moth and rust do not corrupt, I w r ould 
have been employing myself better and saving my soul." 

If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

Though he is high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be thine own. 



VI. ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify a Verb, an 
Adjective, or another Adverb; as, He writes rapidly. 

Examples. — Come here instantly and answer me more respect- 
fully, or you will receive a very severe correction. 

" Here " qualifies the verb " come," it tells where you are to come. 

" Instantly " also qualifies " come," it tells when you are to come. 

" Kespectfully " qualifies the verb " answer," it tells in what 
manner you are to answer. 

" More " qualifies the adverb "respectfully," it tells how respect- 
fully you are to answer. 

" Very " qualifies the adjective " severe," it tells how severe the 
punishment will be. 
8 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remarks on Adverbs. 

1. The word adverb is from the Latin ad, to, and verbum, a 
word or verb, because the adverb is regarded mainly as a word 
added to the verb. 

2. Adverbs are not necessary parts of speech, as their mean- 
ing can always be expressed by other parts of speech. They 
generally express in one word what would otherwise require sev- 
eral words. Here, for instance, means " in this place." 

3. Some of the adverbs appear to be formed by the combi- 
nation of two or more words, which have gradually coalesced 
into one. Thus, bravely is an abbreviation of brave-ft£e, wisely 
of wise-like, happily of happy-&£e, etc. Others again are com- 
posed of nouns, and the letter a used for at, on, etc.; as, aside, 
ahead, abroad, ashore, aground, afloat. 

4. Sometimes several words are taken together and called 
an adverbial phrase ; as, at length, in vain, etc. These ex- 
pressions are elliptical, and the ellipsis can almost always be 
supplied. Whenever this can be done, the words should be parsed 
separately. 

5. Some adverbs perform at the same time the office of 
adverbs and of conjunctions; as, "They will come when they are 
ready." Here, " when " both declares the time of the action, and 
so is an adverb ; and also connects the two verbs, and so is a con- 
junction. These are called, by some grammarians, conjunctive 
adverbs ; by others, adverbial conjunctions. The most common 
of them are, when, where, whither, whenever, wherever, then, etc. 

6. The adverb there is often used as a mere expletive, with- 
out apparently any signification of its own, as in this sentence, 
" There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 

7. Some words are used sometimes as adverbs, and some- 
times as adjectives. Among these are the following: little, less, 
least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, well, ill, still, first. If 
any of these words qualifies a noun, it is an adjective; but, if it 
qualifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, then it is an 
adverb. / 

/ Comparison of Adverbs. 

Many Adverbs are compared. 

Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and est to 
the Positive ; as, soon, sooner, soonest 



ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 



87 



Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more 
and most, less and least ; as, happily, more happily, most 
happily ; less happily, least happily. 

Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Well 


better 


best 


111 


worse 


worst 


Badly 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Far 


farther 


farthest 



Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their significa- 
tion. The most important of these classes are 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, ill, swiftly } 
smoothly ', truly, with a great many others formed from adjectives 
by adding the termination ly. This is by far the most numerous 
class of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place ; as, here, there, ivhere, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, thence, whence, somewhere, nowhere, etc. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, never, soon, 
often, seldom, lately, etc. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little, sufficiently, enough, 
scarcely, etc. 

5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, upward, forward, 
backward, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thitherward, etc. 

6. Adverbs of Kumber, Order, etc. (including all those 
formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, 
etc. ; once, twice, thrice, etc. ; singly, doubly, triply. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation; as, yes, no, verily, 
indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless, etc. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation; as, how, why, when, where, 
w hither, whence, etc. 

9. Adverbs of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, least, better, 
best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost, etc. 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, perad- 
venture. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — Adverbs are very numerous. The above is not in- 
tended as a complete list of them, nor even a complete classifica- 
tion. 

Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — "John wrote the letter 
hastily" 

Model. — "Hastily" (1.) is an adverb, it qualifies the verb 
"wrote;" (2.) it is an adverb of manner, it tells the manner in 
which he wrote; (3.) it is compared, hastily, more hastily, most 
hastily. 

Note. — When the adverb does not admit of comparison, the 
third thing to say of it will be, " not compared." 

Exercises. —Parse all the Adverbs in the following sentences : 

There was no orator who spoke more fluently. Thrice was he 
applauded. Turn your eye whither you would, you might see 
persons attentively listening. Seldom was such an attentive 
multitude assembled in our much too quiet village. 

When the water was hot enough, he boiled the herbs in it 
thoroughly and made the tea sufficiently strong. 

This idle boy was the least attentive of the scholars, and 
studied least. He therefore received the least amount of benefit. 
Better boys will behave better and reap a better reward. 

Parse all the Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Verbs in the 
foregoing sentences. 



VII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- 
tences, and parts of sentences; as, John and James study; 
John writes and James reads. 

The following are the principal Conjunctions; and, as, 
also, because, both, for, if, since, that, then, therefore, 
wherefore, or, nor, either, neither, but, yd, than, lest, 
though, although, unless, whether, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 89 

The word Conjunction is from the Latin con, together, and 
functus, joined, because it joins together. 

Some conjunctions are used in pairs, and are to be taken to- 
gether in parsing. Such conjunctions are called Correlatives. 
The principal Correlative Conjunctions are as — so, although — 
yet, both — am, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, if — then, 
though — yet 

Some conjunctions, not Correlatives, are yet to be parsed 
together, because the connection of the words or sentences is 
made, not by any one of these conjunctions, but by the two or 
more taken together. Such collections of words are called Com- 
plex Conjunctions. The principal Complex Conjunctions are as 
if, as well as, but that, except that, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, even 
though, etc. 

It is a mistake to suppose that the conjunctions and prepositions serve 
merely to connect the other parts of a sentence without any significancy of 
their own. These words were all originally other parts of speech, viz. : 
verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Most of them may be distinctly traced, and 
the meaning of the original recognized in the modern abbreviations. Thus, 
if is the imperative of the Saxon gifan, to give. "If it is fair to-morrow, 
I will go out," means "give (grant) it to be fair to-morrow," etc. Still, as 
the original words from which the conjunctions and prepositions are de- 
rived are mostly obsolete, these words are to be now regarded in reference to 
their present use, and not to their original character. Thus, to require a 
child to parse if as the imperative of the verb gifan, to give, and unless as 
the imperative of the verb onlesan, to dismiss, would only serve to perjDlex 
and embarrass. Where, however, the words are still in current use in the 
language, the case is different, and it becomes extremely doubtful whether 
they ought to be considered as prepositions and conjunctions, or whether 
they ought not to be classed among other parts of speech according to their 
obvious meaning. Examples of this sort are, except, excepting, regarding, 
touching, respecting, notwithstanding, etc. 



Parsing Exercises. — Sentence. — " John and James are 
brothers." 

First Model. — "And" is a conjunction, it connects the noun 
"John" with the noun " James." 

Note. — When conjunctions connect words, those words will be 
the same parts of speech, that is a verb and a verb, an adjective 
8 * 



90 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

and an adjective, etc., except that nouns and pronouns may be 
connected by a conjunction. 

Second Model. — "John studies his lesson carefully, but 
James is very negligent of his lesson." " But" is a conjunction, 
it connects the sentence " John studies his lesson carefully," with 
the sentence " James is very negligent of his lesson." 

Third Model. — "Neither man nor beast could endure the 
fatigue." " Neither " and " nor " are Correlative Conjunctions, 
used to connect the nouns " man " and " beast." 

Exercises. — Parse each of the Conjunctions in the following 
sentences : 

Unless a man lacks virtue, whether he is humble in rank or 
poor in purse, he is worthy of respect and esteem. Yet there 
are some who, notwithstanding their wealth and the advantages 
of fortune, are deemed respectable, though their vicious habits 
should subject them to contempt. These shun the virtuous poor, 
lest they might degrade themselves in their own estimation. 
But they forget that they might be improved by intercourse with 
their virtuous but poor brethren. 

Insert proper conjunctions in the following sentences: 

I shall need an umbrella, it rain to-morrow ; it 

be a clear day, I shall not need it, I never use it to protect 

me from the sun the snow. 

The colonel remained at his post, he was near fainting 

from the loss of blood the pain of his wounds. He declared 

no one else should stand by the flag; he would protect it, 

while he had life strength left. Faithfully heroically 

he kept his word. 

lieview Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns, Adjectives, 
Pronouns, Verbs, and Adverbs in the foregoing sentences. 






VIII. PREPOSITIONS. 



A Preposition is a word placed before a noun to 
show its relation to some other word ; as, I write with a 
pen. 



ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 91 

Note 1. — The word preposition takes its name from prce, 
before, and positus, placed, because it is placed before a noun. 

Note 2. — Prepositions and conjunctions are intimately related, 
both being connecting words. But conjunctions connect things 
of the same kind, and connect them as equals, an adjective 
with an adjective, a noun with a noun, a verb with a verb, 
a sentence with a sentence, etc. A preposition connects dif- 
ferently. It ties on, as it were, one word to another, as a sort of 
addition. Moreover, the word thus tied on by a preposition is 
always either a noun or a pronoun, while almost any part of 
speech may follow a conjunction. The preposition also connects 
the noun following it, not only to another noun, but to other 
parts of speech, as a verb, an adjective, etc. Examples : 

u I write with a pen." " With " connects " pen " (a noun) with 
"write" (a verb). It connects the act with the instrument, and 
shows the relation between them. 

"The man in the next room." "In" connects "room" with 
"man," shows a relation between the two. 

fe Taller by an inch." " By " connects its dependent noun 
"inch" with "taller" (an adjective). 

" Dying of fever." The dependent noun is connected by its 
preposition " of " to " dying," a participle. 

Note 3. — Some of the Prepositions are original and un com- 
pounded words. These are the most important, and should be 
thoroughly committed to memory. Nearly all of them refer in 
some way to place or position. 

Simple Prepositions. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen : viz., at, after, 
by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, 
through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Note. — After is supposed to be the comparative of aft. Doubts have 
been raised in regard to the true character of past. 

Compound Prepositions. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by prefixing 
a to some other word : above, about, across, against, along, amid 
or amidst, amohg or amongst, around, athwart. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The prefix a y which occurs in these and so many other English com- 
pounds, represents a variety of small words, such as at, of, in, on, to, etc. 
In the compound prepositions it generally represents on or in. The other 
part of the compound is some noun, adjective, adverb, or other preposition. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by prefixing 
be (by) to some other words: before, behind, below, beneath, beside 
or besides, between or betwixt, beyond. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by uniting 
without change two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb : 
upon, toward, towards, unto, into, within, without, throughout, under- 
neath. 

Note 1. — According to, instead of, and out of, are sometimes inserted 
among the compound prepositions. But there is no necessity of such a 
course. The words are written separately, and may all be parsed separately. 
According is an adjective or a participle, and always belongs to some noun 
expressed or understood. Instead is simply in stead. Out is either an 
adverb or an adjective, according to circumstances. 

Note 2. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, 
touching, though participles, strictly speaking, frequently have the con- 
struction of prepositions, and may be so parsed. 

Hots 3. — There is no more reason for considering near and nigh prepo- 
sitions than for considering like a preposition. The preposition to is un- 
derstood in all such cases; thus, "like (to) a man," "near (to) the city/* 
"nigh (to) the river." An ellipsis of from after the adverb off has in like 
manner caused the latter word sometimes to be inserted incorrectly among 
the prepositions. Ex. "off (from) his horse." 



Parsing 1 Exercises. — Model. — "John walks on the roof." 
"On" is a preposition, it is placed before the noun "roof;" 
and it shows a relation between " roof/ 7 and " walks," it tells on 
what he walks. 

Parse each of the Prepositions in the following sentences : 
In the morning of a sunny Sabbath day, the village children, 
with happy faces, were on their way to the house of God. The 
sun that looked down from above upon them, the blue sky over 
them, and the flowery earth beneath their feet, were not more 
brilliant than the glance of their eyes. Hand in hand they went 
along the path leading to the church, with praise upon their 
tongues, and gratitude reigning within their hear^o, 



ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 93 

Review Exercise. — Parse each of the Nouns, Adjectives, 
Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, and Conjunctions in the foregoing 
sentences. 



IX. INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word used in making sudden 
exclamations ; as, oh ! ah ! 

The principal Interjections are, adieu, ah, alas, alack, aha, 
begone, hark, ho, ha, he, hail, halloo, hum, hush, hist, huzza, lo } 0, 
oh, pshaiv, see, etc. 

Some of the words usually called interjections are other parts of speech, 
and may be parsed accordingly; as, behold, a verb in the imperative; 
strange ! an ellipsis for it is strange, etc. When the words are not resolv- 
able in this way, but are mere exclamations (and these are the only true 
interjections), it seems doubtful whether they ought to be considered as a 
part of speech, any more than the barking of a dog or the mere noise of 
any other animal. 

GENERAL PARSING EXERCISE. 

Parse each of the words in the following sentences : 
Benjamin West's aptitude for drawing, exhibited in his boy- 
hood, was extraordinary. No restraint could check it. When, 
in later years, he was painting Death on the Pale Horse, Gar- 
rick the actor asked him " if he should die for him," meaning, 
"Shall I imitate a dying man?" "O! no," replied West, think- 
ing apparently that Garrick wished to do him a great service, or 
intended to show a great affection for him or a great admiration 
of his genius, by actually dying. 




94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 

As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Ex. As the 
wind was favorable, we set sail. It is also a part of the 
Correlative Conjunction as — so, and of several Complex 
Conjunctions, as well as, etc. 
As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or 
a pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. Ex. : 
Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner. 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 
Before, Aftek. Till, and Until, when not followed by a noun 
or a pronoun in the objective case, are Adverbs. Ex. : 
Come before I have dined. 
Come after I have dined. 
Wait till I have dined. 
Wait until I have dined. 
Both is an Adjective, when it means the two. Ex. Both shoes 

need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction in all other cases.. Ex. I both love and 

respect him. 
But is a Preposition, when it means except Ex. He lost all his 

books but (except) his dictionary. 
But is an Adverb, when it means only. Ex. I but (only) touched 

him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction in all other instances. 
Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means one 

of the two. Ex. Either of the boys may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means not 

one of the two. 
Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
For is a Conjunction, when it means because, and is used in giv- 
ing a reason. Ex. I obey him, for he is my father, that 
is, because He is my father. 
For is a Preposition in all other cases. 



ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 95 

SINCE, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction. Ex. Since 

it is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, w T hen placed before a noun denoting a period of time, is a 

Preposition. Ex. I have had no food since Monday. 
Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. 
Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction. Ex. 

If all this be so, then I am right. 
Then, in all other instances, is an Adverb. 
That is a Eelative Pronoun, when who, ivhom, or which may be 

used in its place. Ex. He is the wisest man that lives in 

our village. 
That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun, when the may be 

used instead of it. Ex. " That house which I see," means 

" the house which I see." 
That is a Conjunction in all other cases. Ex. He wears warm 

clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, whom, 

which, or the, could not be used for that. 
What is a Eelative Pronoun, when that which or those which can 

be used in its stead. Ex. Eat what is set before you. 

That is, Eat that ivhich is set before you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun, when used to ask a question, 

Ex. What do you see ? 
What is an Adjective Pronoun, when joined with a noun, but 

not asking a question. Ex. What wonders he performed. 

He gave what money he had to the poor. 
What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote 

surprise, is an Interjection. Ex. What! abuse your 

mother ! 
While, meaning to pass or spend (time), is a Verb. Ex. They 

managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. 
While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun. Ex. Let us sing 

a while. 
While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb. Ex. The 

act was done while I was absent. 
Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction. Ex. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Adverb, 

Ex. Has the boy come yet ? 

I will give you yet one more reason. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them 
to their original form and meaning. 

This part of Etymology has assumed so much importance as to become 
a separate branch of study, and several excellent works on the subject have 
been prepared. In like manner, the Spelling-Book and the Dictionary may 
be considered as having grown out of a particular branch of Orthography. 
In consequence of the existence of separate works on these points, they 
are passed over in Grammar more cursorily than they would otherwise be. 
Still it is not deemed expedient to pass them over altogether. As a few of 
the most important rules for Spelling were given, so a very brief summary 
will be presented of some of the most essential principles of Derivation. 

A Primitive word is a word in its original form ; as, good, 

A Derivative word is a word formed from another by some 
change in its termination, or by the addition of some letters at 
the beginning or end of the word; as, goodness. When the 
additional letters make by themselves an entire word, the word 
formed is generally called a compound ; as, landlord. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the beginning of a word is 
called & prefix. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the end of a word is called an 
affix or suffix. 

The Prefixes are generally prepositions, and belong to three 
principal classes, viz., the Saxon, the Latin, and the Greek. 

I. PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 

A signifies on or in ; as, ashore, that is, on shore. 

Be signifies about ; as, fostir, that is, stir about ; also, for or 
before ; as, fospeak, that is, to speak for or before. It has also 
several other meanings. 

For denies ; as, bid,/orbid (bid not to do a thing). 

Fore signifies before ; as, see, /oresee. 

Mis signifies defect or error ; as, take, mistake (take in a wrong 
way). 

Over denotes superiority or excess ; as, done, overdone (done to 
excess). 

Out signifies excess or superiority ; as, run, outrun. 

Tin before an adjective signifies not; as, worthy, unworthy; 






ETYMOLOGY — DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97 

before a verb it signifies the undoing of the act expressed by the 
verb; as, tie, untie. 

Up denotes motion upward ; as, start, w^start; and also subver- 
sion ; as, set, upset. 

With signifies against, from ; as, stand, w&7/istand; draw, with- 
draw. 

II. PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. 

A (ab or abs) signifies/rcwz or away ; as, abstract, to draw away. 

Ad signifies to, at; as, adjoin, to join to [Ad assumes different 
forms according to the first letter of the root to which it is pre- 
fixed; as, ascend, accede, affect, aggrieve, etc.). 

Ambi from ambo, both, signifies double; as, ambiguous (having 
two meanings). 

Ante signifies before ; thus, antediluvian, before the flood. 

Bene signifies good, vjell; as, benevolent, well disposed. 

Bi or bis means two or twice ; as, bisect, to cut into two parts. 

Circum signifies round, about; as, circumnavigate, to sail round. 

Cis signifies on this side ; as, cis-alpine, on this side the Alps. 

Con [com, co, or col) signifies together ; as, convoke, to call to- 
gether. 

Contra (counter, contro) signifies against ; as, contradict, to speak 
against ; counteract, to act against. 

Be signifies of, from, or down ; as, dethrone, to drive from the 
throne. 

Di (dis, dif) signifies asunder ; as, distract, to draw asunder. 
It also signifies negation or undoing ; as, disobey, not to obey. 

E [ex) signifies out of; as, elect, to choose out of. 

Equi signifies equal; as, equidistant, at an equal distance. 

Extra signifies out of, beyond; as, extraordinary, beyond the 
ordinary course. 

In, before an adjective, serves as a negative; as, active, inac- 
tive ; before a verb, in signifies in or into ; as, include, to close in. 

Inter signifies between ; as, intervene, to come between. 

Intro signifies to, within ; as, introduce, to lead in. 

Juxta signifies nigh to ; as, juxtaposition, placed near to. 

Mai or male (from malus, bad) signifies ill or bad; as, malprac- 
tice, bad practice. 

Manu (from manus, a hand) signifies with or by the hand; as, 
manuscript, anything written by the hand. 
9 G 



98 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Multi signifies many ; as, multiform, having many forms. 

Ob (pc, of, o, op) signifies opposition; as, obstacle, something, 
standing in opposition. 

Omni signifies all; as, omnipotent, all powerful. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly ; as, perfect, thoroughly done, 
finished. 

Post signifies after ; as, postscript, written after. 

Prce or pre signifies before ; as, prepaid, paid before. 

Pro signifies forth or forwards ; as, promote, to move forwards. 

Prceter or preter signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, be- 
yond the course of nature. 

Re signifies again or bach ; as, regain, to gain back. 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, going backwards. 

Se signifies apart or without ; as, secrete, to hide, to put aside. 

Sine signifies without ; as, sinecure, without care or labor. 

Sub signifies under; as, submarine, under the sea. 

Super signifies above or over ; as, superscribe, to write above or 
over. 

Trans signifies over, from one place to another ; as, transport, to 
carry over. 

III. PREFIXES OF GREEK ORIGIN. 

A or an signifies privation or without; as, anonymous, without 
a name. 

Amphi signifies both or the two ; as, amphibious, having two 
lives, or capable of living both on larfd and in water. 

Ana signifies through or up; as, anatomy (literally), a cutting 
up. 

Anti (ant) signifies against; as, antichristian, against Christian- 
ity; antarctic, opposite the arctic. 

Apo (ap) signifies from ; as, apogee, from the earth; aphelion, 
from the sun. 

Dia signifies through; as, diameter, a measure through. 

Epi signifies upon ; as, epidemic, upon or among the people. 

Hyper signifies over, above ; as, hypercritical, over critical, too 
critical. 

Hypo signifies under, implying concealment; as, hypocrite, a 
person concealing his real character. 

Meta signifies change, transmutation ; as, metamorphosis, sl change 
of shape. 



ETYMOLOGY DERIVATION OF WORDS. 



99 



Mono signifies single ; as, monosyllable, a word of one syllable. 

Para signifies beyond, on one side ; as, paradox, an opinion be- 
yond or contrary to the general opinion. 

Peri signifies round or about ; as, perimeter, a measure round. 

Poly signifies many ; as, polysyllable, a word of many syllables. 

Semi (demi, hemi) signifies half; as, semicircle, half of a circle; 
hemisphere, half of a sphere. 

Syn (sy, syl, sym) signifies with, together ; as, sympathy, feeling 
with. 

IV. AFFIXES. 

The Affixes are very numerous, and cannot always be traced 
satisfactorily to their origin. They are generally classified ac- 
cording to their signification. The following are the principal 
classes. 

1. Affixes denoting the agent or doer: 



an, as in guardian. 


ent, 


as in adhered. 


ant, assists. 


er, 


baker. 


ar, beggar. 


ist, 


conformist 


ard, dotard. 


ive, 


operative. 


ary, adversary. 


or, 


inspector. 


eer, charioteer. 


ster, 


punster. 



2. Affixes denoting the person acted upon : 

ate, as in potentate. ite, as in favorite, 

ee, assignee. 

3. Affixes denoting being or state of being : 



acy, 


as in piracy. 


ment, as in achievement 


age, 


bondage. 


mony, 


acrimony. 


ance, 


repentance. 


ness, 


acuteness. 


ancy, 


flagrancy. 


ry> 


rivalry. 


ence, 


adherence. 


ship, 


friendship. 


ency, 


emergency. 


th, 


denth. 


hood, 


boyhood. 


tude, 


aptitude. 


ion, 


exhaustion. • 


*y, 


loyally. 


ism, 


despotic. 


ure, 


disclosure. 


4. Affixes 


denoting jurisdiction : 






dom, 


as in kingdom. 


ric, as in 


bishopric. 


5. Affixes 


denoting diminution : 






cle, as in corpusc/e. 


ling, as in 


duckling. 


kin, 


lamMin. 


ock y 


hillock. 


let, 


stream^. 







100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



6. Affixes denoting of or 'pertaining to : 





ac, as in elegiac. 


ic, 


as in angeKc. 




al, autumnal 


ical, 


canomca£ 




an, republican. 


He, 


infanhYe. 




ar, consular. 


ine, 


adamantine. 




ary, momentary. 


ory, 


expiatory. 




en, wooden. 






7. 


Affixes denoting full of: 








ate, as in affectionate. 


ous, 


as in hazardous. 




ful, hopeful. 


some 


, gladsonze. 




ose, globose. 


y, 


pithy. 


8. 


Affixes denoting capacity : 








ive, as in communicatee. 


ible, 


as in contempts 




able, profitable. 






9. 


Affixes denoting to make : 








ate, as in alienate. 


ize, as in epitormze. 




en, brighten. 


ize, 


methodize. 




fV, justi/y. 






10 


. Miscellaneous affixes : 








like signifies likeness, as in 




saintfo'&e. 




ly " " 




maidenly, 




ish " small degree of an 


ythin 


£, as in blackisA. 



ward 



negation, " axtless. 

in the direction of, " homeward. 





Third Part. 



o^Ko 



The third part of Grammar treats of Sentences. 
It is divided into two parts, Syntax and Analysis. 
Syntax treats of putting words together into sentences. 
Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into 
the parts which compose it. 



o>@<o 



I. SYNTAX. 

General Observations. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

The principal parts of a sentence are the Subject (or 
nominative) and the Predicate (or verb). 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a finite verb, and not making by 
themselves complete sense. 

A Clause is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, and containing a verb with its subject, and so making 
by themselves complete sense, but not independent, being 
used to modify some other word. 

9* 101 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

A Simple sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one finite verb ; as, Life is short. 

A Complex sentence is one which contains a simple 
sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its 
subject or its verb ; as, A life which is spent in doing 
good cannot be a failure. 

A Compound sentence is one which contains two or 
more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by 
one or more conjunctions; as, Life is short, but art is long. 

The sentences which compose a compound sentence 
are called its Members. 

For a fuller Analysis of the English Sentence, see the Chapter 
with this title at the close of Syntax. 

Order of the Rules in Syntax. 

In the old grammars, Syntax was divided into Concord and Government. 
By Concord was meant the agreement of one word with another in gender, 
number, case, or person. By Government was meant the power which one 
word had of determining the mood, tense, or case of another. The rules of 
Syntax were then classified and arranged according to this division. To 
adhere to such a division, however, occasions many serious inconveniences. 
Subjects intimately connected in every other respect are often widely sun- 
dered because of their differenee in this one unimportant particular. By 
the same arbitrary arrangement, rules of essential importance, which the 
pupil must know before he can make any progress in parsing, are thrown 
far forward in the book, quite beyond his reach, except by wading through 
a mass of rules which he is not yet qualified to comprehend. 

The more recent grammarians, therefore, very wisely cease to insist upon 
this distribution, and practically adopt that which arises naturally from the 
analysis of a simple sentence. The agreement of the verb with its nomi- 
native, and the government of the objective case demand the immediate 
attention of the pupil, at the very threshold of syntax. As soon as he has 
learned to resolve simple sentences, he is' prepared for those which are more 
complex. This complexity arises either from the combination of several 
simple sentences into one, or from connecting various adjuncts with the 
principal parts of a sentence. Thus, the adjective is connected with the 
noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, 
etc. In this manner, the various leading rules arise nearly in the order 
in which they are wanted by the pupil, while under each leading rule are 
given all the exceptions and subsidiary rules naturally connected with the 
subject. 



RULE I. — THE NOMINATIVE. lUo 

RULE I. 

The Subject of a Verb must be in the Nomina- 
tive Case. 

4 

Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of which the 
assertion is made. " The book is in the desk." The subject of 
the assertion here is " book." It is that which is asserted to be in 
the desk. " John and I went home." Here there are two sub- 
jects, "John" and "I." It is of both these we say that they 
" went home." Now, the subject of the verb, that of which any- 
thing is asserted, must be in the nominative case. It would be 
contrary to the Rule, therefore, to say, " John and me went home," 
because "me," one of the subjects, is not in the nominative case. 

NOTES. 

1. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles Henry 
Grant, etc., should be taken together in parsing, as if they were 
one word. Thus, we would say, " Charles Henry Grant " is a 
noun, etc. 

2. The subject of the verb may be an infinitive mood, or a part 
of a sentence, taken as a noun ; as, " To behave properly will gain 
for us a good name," " Thou shalt not kill, is the sixth command- 
ment." In the former of these examples, " To behave " is the sub- 
ject of the verb, just as " behavior" would be, if the sentence were 
written, " Proper behavior will gain for us a good name." 

3. A noun or a pronoun addressed, and not the subject of any 
verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent ; as, " Father, for- 
give them." In many languages, this construction forms a dis- 
tinct case, called the Vocative. 

4. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle as its subject, 
and not being the subject of any verb, is in the Nominative Case 
Absolute ; as, "My father dying,- 1 was left an orphan." 

5. In the construction called the Case Absolute, the nomi- 
native is the subject of the participle ; and the two words taken 
together form a dependent clause equivalent to a nominative 
and a verb, preceded by a conjunction or an adverb. Thus, 
" Whose grey top shall tremble, he descending ; " that is, " when 
lie descends." 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

The case absolute, in almost all languages except the English, is some 
other than the nominative. Thus, in the Saxon it is the dative, in the Latin 
it is the ablative, in the Greek, and in most of the Oriental languages, it is 
the genitive. 

6. The noun or pronoun in absolute clauses is often omitted. 
Thus, in the sentence, " Generally speaking, labor is not without 
its reward/' " speaking " is put absolutely with we, men, or some 
other word of the kind, understood. 

7. The rule for the construction of absolute clauses is violated 
by putting the subject of the participle in any other case than 
the nominative. As the nominative and objective cases of nouns 
are alike, no false syntax can occur under this rule except in 
pronouns. " Him (he) dying, I was left an orphan." 

8. Every nominative case, except the case independent, the 
case absolute, the case of apposition, and the nominative after an 
intransitive verb, should be the subject of some verb expressed 
or understood. 

9. A noun and its pronoun should not be put as subjects to the 
same verb ; as, " The day, it is clear." 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

" James writes a letter." " James " is a proper noun, of the 
masculine gender, in the singular number, third person, and 
nominative case, subject of the verb "writes," and nominative 
to it, according to Rule I., which says, " The subject of the verb 
is nominative to it." 

"He will write a letter." " He" is a personal pronoun, 3d p., 
masc. g., sing, n., and nom. case, subject of the verb " will write," 
and nominative to it, according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

N. B. — In parsing pronouns, certain other things are to be 
said, which will be learned under Eule VIII. The parsing in the 
model is complete, so far as it can be given now. 

"To behave properly will gain for us a good name." "To 
behave " is a verb in the infinitive mood, used as a noun, and is 
the subject of the verb " will gain," according to Note 2, Rule I. 
(Quote the Note.) 

" Father, forgive them." " Father" is a com. noun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 2d p., and in the nominative case independent, accord- 
ing to Note 3, Eule I. (Quote Note.) 



RULE I. — THE NOMINATIVE. 106 

"The sash falling suddenly, his finger was crushed." " Sash " 
is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the nominative case 
absolute before the participle "falling," according to Note 4, 
Eule I. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "Him and her are of the same age." 
Ans. Him and her are here in the objective case. They should 
be in the nominative, because they are the subjects of the verb 
are, and should read he and she, according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

Correct the sentence, " Solomon was the wisest of men, him 
only excepted who spake as never man spake ! " "Him" is here 
in the objective case. It should be in the nominative, because 
it is placed absolutely with " excepted/'' and should read " he 
only excepted," according to Note 4, Eule I. (Quote Note,) 

Correct the sentence, " The man, he is rich." He is super- 
fluous, because it is not needed as the subject of any verb. The 
sentence should read, "The man is rich," according to Note 9, 
Eule I. (Quote Note.) 

Exercises. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the following sentences, correcting wherever 
necessary : 

Virtue ennobles the mind, vice debases it. 

London is on the Thames. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Him and I could not agree. 

They and us agreed to do it. 

You and them had a long dispute. 

Thomas and me learned the lesson together. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 

To cultivate the ground gives pleasant occupation. 

Whence and what art thou, execrable shape? 

Show pity, Lord ; O, Lord, forgive. 

Oh what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

His disease being thoroughly cured, and the busy season having 
commenced, he should have been at his post. 

Napoleon being banished, peace was restored to Europe. 

Napoleon, having raised a large army, crossed the Alps. 

His character, viewing it in the most charitable manner, is full 
of blemishes. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Them descending, the ladder fell. 
Whom being dead, the hostility ceased. 
Him excepted, John was the worst of the party. 
This truth, if it had been attended to, the parties would have 
escaped a great deal of trouble. 



o^o 



RULE II. 

A Verb agrees with its Nominative in Num- 
ber and Person. 

NOTES. 

1. Eule II. is violated by putting the verb in any other num- 
ber or person than its nominative ; as, " They was present." 

2. In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential moods, every 
verb should have a nominative expressed, except where two or 
more verbs are connected in the same construction. 

3. A verb in the Infinitive mood has no subject or nominative. 

In this respect the English differs from the classical and many other 
languages, in which the infinitive very commonly has a subject like the 
other moods, but is distinguished by this peculiarity, that the subject is 
not in the nominative, but in the accusative or objective. 

4. In the Imperative mood, the subject or nominative is gener- 
ally omitted, thou or you being understood. 

5. When the subject or nominative of the verb is an infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, the verb should be singular ; as, 
"To see the sun is pleasant," "Thou shalt not kill, is a divine 
command." But if there are two or more infinitives, or clauses, 
making distinct subjects, then the verb should be plural; as, 
"To skate and to play cricket are healthful amusements," 
"Thou shalt not kill, and Thou shalt not steal, are divine 
commands." 

6. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun in the 
singular, expressing unity of idea, the verb should be singu- 
lar; as, "The class is large." But, whenever such nominative 






RULE II. — THE VERB. 107 

expresses plurality of idea, the verb should be plural; as, "The 
multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

7. Some nouns, which are not considered nouns of multitude, 
are frequently used in the singular form, with a plural meaning ; 
as, " Ten sail of the line were seen off the coast." In such cases 
the verb should be plural. 

8. " It," used indefinitely before a verb which has a nominative 
case after it, is the subject of that verb, and the verb agrees with 
it, and not with the other nominative ; thus, " It is I," not " It 
am I ; " " It is they," not " It are they." 

9. Two or more nominatives connected by and, expressed or 
understood, require a verb in the plural ; as, " Socrates and Plato 
were wise." The verb in such cases should be plural, because 
the assertion is made of all the nominatives. For the same rea- 
son, all the nouns and pronouns, representing such nominatives, 
should be plural ; as, " Filthiness and bad food are sources of dis- 
ease," not " a source," etc. 

10. Two or more nominatives, though connected by and, yet if 
used to express only one subject, require a verb in the singular; 
as, " That eminent statesman and orator is dead." 

11. When singular nominatives, though connected by and, be- 
long to separate propositions, they have a singular verb ; as, " The 
wine, and not the bottle, was used." Nominatives connected by 
and belong to separate propositions, when accompanied by each, 
every, no, not, or some other disuniting word ; as, " Every house, 
every grove was burnt," " Good order, and not mean savings, pro- 
duces profits." In the former sentence, the meaning is, " Every 
house was burnt, and every grove was burnt." In the latter, 
" Good order produces profits, and mean savings do not." 

12. Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by or 
or nor, require a verb in the singular ; as, Ignorance or preju- 
dice has caused the mistake." The verb in such cases should be 
singular, because the assertion is true of only one of these nomi- 
natives. For the same reason, all the nouns or pronouns, repre- 
senting such nominatives, should be singular. 

13. If any one of several nominatives connected by or or nor 
is plural, the verb must be plural ; as, " Either he or they were 
mistaken." 

14. When a verb has nominatives of different persons, con- 
nected by and, the verb agrees with the first person rather than the 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

second, and with the second rather than the third ; as, " He and 
I shared the peach between us" "Shared," here, should be 
parsed as in the first person. 

15. When a verb has nominatives of different persons, con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the nomina- 
tive nearest to it ; as, " Either thou or I am mistaken." 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

" James writes a letter." " Writes " is a transitive verb, irreg- 
ular (Pres. write, Past, wrote, Past P. written), active voice, in- 
dicative mood, present tense, and is in the third person, singular 
number, to agree with its nominative "James," according to 
Eule II. 

" To play in the mud soils the clothes." " Soils " is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., to 
agree with the verb " to play " in the infinitive mood used as a 
noun, according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Thou shalt not steal, is the eighth commandment." " Is " is 
an int. v., irr., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., sing, n., to agree with its 
nominative, " Thou shalt not steal," a part of a sentence used as 
a noun, according to Note 5, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

" The class recite well." " Recite " is an intrans. verb., reg., 
act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to agree with its 
nominative " class," a collective noun expressing a plural idea, 
according to Note 6, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Socrates and Plato were wise." " Were " is an intrans. verb, 
irr., ind. m., past t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., because it has two 
nominatives, "Socrates" and "Plato," connected by "and," ac- 
cording to Note 9, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

" If that skilful painter and glazier is in town, be sure to em- 
ploy him." " Is " is an intrans. verb, irr., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., 
and in the sing, n., because its two nominatives, " painter " and 
"glazier," express only one subject, according to Note 10, Eule 
II. (Quote Note.) 

" Ignorance or prejudice has caused the mistake." " Has 
caused " is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres.-p. t., 3d p., 
and in the sing, n., because its two nominatives, " ignorance" 
and " prejudice," are in the singular, connected by or, according 
to Note 12, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 



RULE II. THE VERB. 109 

" He and I shared the peach between us." " Shared " is a 
trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., past t., in the 1st p., according 
to Note 14, Eule II. (quote Note), and in the pi. n., according to 
Note 9, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " I loves study." Ans. " Loves " is in 
the third person. It should be in the first person, to agree with 
its nominative, " I," and should read, " I love study," according 
to Rule II. (Quote.) 

Correct the sentence, " The days of man is but as grass." Ans. 
" Is " is singular. It should be plural, because its nominative, 
" days," is plural. The sentence should read, " The days of man 
are but as grass," according to Rule II. (Quote Rule.) 

Correct the sentence, " Dear Sir : Have just received your let- 
ter." Ans. " Have received " is a verb in the indicative mood, 
without any nominative expressed. It should read, "/have re- 
ceived," according to Note 2, under Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "To play in the mud, and to walk 
through the wet grass, soils the clothes." Ans. "Soils" is singu- 
lar. It should be plural, and should read " soil," because it has 
for its nominative two infinitives, "to play" and "to walk," 
making two distinct subjects, according to Note 5, Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "The people has no opinion of their 
own." Ans. " Has " is singular. It should be plural, because 
it has for its nominative " people," a collective noun expressing 
plurality of idea, and it should read, " The people have no opin- 
ion," according to Note 6, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " Life and death is in the power of the 
tongue." Ans. " Is " is singular. It should be plural, because it has 
two nominatives connected by " and," and should read, "Life and 
death are" etc., according to Note 9, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "That distinguished poet, orator, and 
scholar are dead." Ans. "Are" is plural. It should be "is" (sin- 
gular), because the nominatives "poet," "orator," and "scholar," 
though connected by "and," express only one subject, and require 
a verb singular, according to Note 10, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " Neither precept nor discipline are so 
forcible as example." Ans. "Are" is plural. It should be 
singular, because it has two singular nominatives connected by 
nor, and should read, " Neither precept nor discipline is" etc., 
according to Note 12, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

iU 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Correct the sentence, " Either I or thou am greatly mistaken." 
Ans. " Am " is first person. It should be second person, to agree 
with the nearest nominative " thou," and should read, " Either I 
or thou art greatly mistaken," according to Note 15, Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Verbs and Nominatives in the following sentences, correcting 
where necessary : 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

A soft answer turn away wrath. 

Our most sanguine prospects has often been blasted. 

The number of our days are with thee. 

A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. 

Constant perseverance in the path of virtue will gain respect. 

There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 

The number of the inhabitants amount to one million. 

Have a sufficient quantity of oats been given to the horse? 

Sufficient data w T as not given, and the solution of the problems 
were impossible. 

Between grammar and logic there exists many connections. 

Many means was employed, but no one means were found 
efficient. 

Trout was found in abundance. 

"Oats" are a common noun, of the neuter gender, plural 
number, and are governed by the preposition " of." 

His clothes is torn. 

Dear Sir : — Have just received your letter of yesterday. Am 
sorry to hear that the stereotype plates are sold. Hope to have 
better luck next time. On the whole, think have not quite lost 
all chances of them yet. Very truly yours, etc. 

To encourage virtuous actions are praiseworthy. 

To love God aud keep his commandments, are the whole duty 
of man. 

To eat with unwashed hands, to drink wine, and to eat the flesh 
of certain animals, is forbidden by the Koran. 

Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, is the first and great com- 
mandment. 

Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself bread. 



RULE II. — THE VERB. Ill 

Some people is busy and yet does very little. 

Cavalry is not furnished with knapsacks. 

The gang contain all the idle and vicious boys of the village. 
Congress have adjourned. 

The youth of this country is well educated. 

The Board of Health have forbidden the vessel to enter the 
port. 

It is the boys of whom I complain. 

The sacred Scriptures should be read by all. 

The smiles of the mob is easily gained. 

Four pair of ducks was brought into the market. 

Twenty head of sheep was grazing on the hill. 

The time and the place for the conference was agreed upon. 

Idleness and ignorance brings sorrow. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

Prosperity and adversity is sent to us for wise purposes. 

The abuse of w T ine, not its use, make it a curse. 

My brother with two friends have arrived. 

Nothing but the flag and flagstaff was visible. 

A strong argument, and not a loud voice, bring conviction. 

Food, and no water, are not sufficient to support life. 

There was a man and a woman found dead, who were natives 
of England. 

Every city, town, and village were depopulated. 

There seems to be war, famine, and disease at this time on the 
earth. 

On the tomb is this inscription: "Here lies a statesman and 
philosopher.' 7 

Our parlor and sitting-room were the front room in the second 
story. 

His bread and butter depends upon his exertions. 

The house in which I was born, my boyhood's happy home, 
and the abode of all those whom I hold dear, are now crumbling 
to dust. 

The flute or the piano, when skilfully played, produce delight- 
ful music; but the sound of a drum, or the squeaking of the fife, 
are discordant. 

Neither the secretaries nor the president was to be blamed. 

To read or to write were equally difficult to him. 

Out of his mouth come neither profanity nor obscenity. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Neither the laws nor the Constitution is sufficient to insure 
perfect order in the community. 

Neither the captain, nor the passengers, nor any of the crew 
was saved. 

In him were found neither deceit, nor any other vice. 

Here no longer does my wife or children sit at evening. 
Neither my house, nor she who was its chief attraction, have been 
spared by the destroyer, time. 

Has not his ignorance or bad manners made him the scorn of 
everybody ? 



RULE III. 

A Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, re- 
quires an Object in the Objective Case. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun in the objective is said to be governed by 
the verb. 

NOTES. 

1. Eule III. is violated in four ways, namely : 1. By putting 
the object of the verb in any other case than the objective; as, 
She asked him and I (me) to do it. 2. By using a transitive 
verb in the active voice without an object; as, He ingratiates 
(himself) with people. 3. By inserting a preposition between 
the verb and its object; as, I shall premise (with) a few observa- 
tions. 4. By using an objective with a verb that is not transi- 
tive ; as, I lie me down to sleep. 

2. A participle of a Transitive verb, in the Active voice, re- 
quires an object in the objective case; as, "The boy, having eaten 
unripe fruit, became sick." 

3. The Relative Pronoun, when in the objective case, generally 
precedes the verb by which it is governed ; as, " The book which 
you see is mine." Here, "which" is the object of the verb "see," 
and is placed before it. 

4. The verb to teach and some few others retain the object in 
the objective case, even in the passive voice. 



RULE III. — THE OBJECTIVE. 113 

In explaining this construction, which is somewhat peculiar in English, 
though common in Latin, it is necessary to revert to the distinction be- 
tween the direct and the indirect object of a verb. "He gives the book 
to me." "Book" is the direct object, "me" is the indirect object. In 
changing the expression to the passive, the direct object becomes nomina- 
tive. ** The book is given to me." Now, in the case of the verb "to 
teach," and of some few others, in changing to the passive, the direct object 
remains in the objective, and the indirect object becomes nominative. Ac- 
tive : "He taught grammar (direct object) to me" (indirect). Passive: "I 
was taught grammar" (direct object). The following are some additional 
examples of this construction: "I was asked a question," "I was denied 
the privilege," "I was offered a place in the custom-house." 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

" James writes a letter." " Letter " is a com. noun, n. g., sing, 
n., 3d p., and is in the obj. c, governed by "writes," a transitive 
verb in the active voice, according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

"The boy, having eaten unripe fruit, became sick." "Fruit" 
is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed 
by the participle " having eaten," according to Note 2, Rule III. 
(Quote Note.) 

" James called him." " Him " is a pers. pronoun, 3d p., masc. 
g., sing, n., and in the obj. c, governed by " called," a trans, v. 
in the act. v., according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

Note. — The parsing of the Pronoun here is complete as far 
as it goes. But there are other things to be learned concerning 
it under Rule VIII., before it can be entirely complete. 

" He and they we know, but who art thou ? " " He " and 
"they" should be in the objective case, because they are the 
object of the verb " know." The sentence should be, " Him and 
them we know," according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

" He ingratiates with some by traducing others." " Ingrati- 
ates," a transitive verb, should not be used without an object. 
Insert " himself." " He ingratiates himself with some." 

" I shall premise with a few general observations." The prep- 
osition " with " should not be inserted between the transitive verb 
"premise" and its object "observations." Omit "with." "I 
shall premise a few general observations." 

" I lie me down to sleep." " Lie," an intransitive verb, should 
not have an object "me." Either change "lie" to "lay," or omit 
" me." " I lay me down to sleep," or " I lie down to sleep." 
10* H 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Exercises. 

Parse the Objectives which are the objects of verbs, in the following sen- 
tences, correcting where necessary : 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

The sailors, while exploring the island, found trees bearing 
delicious fruit. Having eaten a quantity of this fruit, and rested 
their weary limbs, they continued their journey. 

Devotion strengthens virtue. 

We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Kepenting him of his design, he returned to his home. 

Application in early life will give ease in old age. 

He who committed the offence, thou shouldst punish, not I 
who am innocent. 

It is difficult to agree his conduct with the principles which he 
professes. 

Perseverance in labor will surmount every difficulty. 

Wrong acts he suffers with patience. 

The child chased after the butterfly. 

The waters of the Mississippi flow into the Gulf of Mexico. 

The fountains of the great deep were broken up. 

Anger inflamed him with rage. 

The time fixed for the celebration has long since passed. 

The fact mentioned in your letter has, I am sorry to say, 
escaped my memory. 

Cave canem, translated into English, means " Beware the dog." 

" Slow and steady often out-travels haste." 

" All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." 

" Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards, and seers, 
That live in story and in song, 
Time, for the last two thousand years, 
Has raised, and shown, and swept along." 

Review. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing sentences, and all 
the Verbs except those in the Infinitive mood. 



RULE IV. PREPOSITIONS. 115 

RULE IV. 

A Preposition requires an object in the Objec- 
tive Case. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun in the objective after a preposition is said 
to be governed by it. 

NOTES. 

1. A Preposition is generally placed before the word which it 
governs ; as, " He came to town." 

2. That, when used as a relative pronoun, always precedes the 
preposition by which it is governed ; as, " Every book that you 
have referred to, is mine." Here "that" is governed by the 
preposition " to," and precedes it. If we were to use " which " 
here instead of "that," the arrangement would be different; thus, 
" Every book to which you have referred, is mine." 

3. Whom and which sometimes precede the preposition; as, 
" The person whom I travelled with" This mode of construction 
is generally considered inelegant, especially where the preposition 
is separated some distance from the word which it governs. The 
sentence just quoted would read better thus : " The person with 
whom I travelled." 

4. The preposition and the word governed by it should be 
placed as near as possible to the preceding word to which they 
relate ; as, " He was reading in a low voice, when I entered." 
This is better than saying, " He was reading, when I entered, in 
a low voice." The words " in a low voice," relate to the act of 
" reading," and should not unnecessarily be separated from it. 

5. Sometimes, in law papers, and other documents of a formal 
nature, two prepositions govern jointly the same word ; as, " He 
is related to, and governed by, the same person." Such construc- 
tions in other kinds of writing should be avoided. The sentence 
may run thus : " He is related to the same person, and is gov- 
erned by him." 

6. It is a very objectionable mode of construction to make the 
same word governed jointly by a transitive verb and a preposi- 
tion ; as, " He was warned of, and urged to avoid, the danger." 
It should be, " He was warned of the danger, and urged to avoid 
it." 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

7. When a preposition is followed by an adjective without a 
noun, supply the noun, and parse the preposition accordingly ; 
as, " Keep to the right (hand)." 

8. The preposition is frequently omitted, particularly after 
verbs of giving and procuring ; after adjectives of likeness or near- 
ness; and before nouns denoting time, place, price, measure, etc. 
When it is practicable to supply the ellipsis, the noun or pronoun 
is parsed as in the objective, governed by the preposition thus 
supplied. But when no such word can be supjnied, we say the 
noun is in the objective, expressing time, place, price, measure, etc., 
without any governing word. Examples : Give (to) me a book. 
Get (for) me an apple. Like (to) his father. Near (to) his 
home. They travelled (through) sixty miles (in) a day. A w 7 all 
six feet high. Subjects worthy (of) fame. Books worth (worthy 
of?) a dollar. 

The last example cited above is somewhat disputed and not very clear. 
" Worth " appears to be an adjective, because it evidently qualifies the noun, 
and may itself be qualified by an adverb ; as, " He had a wife well worth 
the confidence which he placed in her." Here, " well " qualifies worth, and 
"worth" qualifies wife, just as clearly as if it were "worthy." The con- 
struction, too, seems precisely analogous to the following : " This deed is no 
more worthy (of) heaven, than thou art worthy (of ) her." As in the latter 
case there is an evident ellipsis of the preposition, the most natural solu- 
tion of the former seems to be to say, that " of" is omitted, and that 
" worth," by an anomalous usage, is employed in the sense of " worthy," 
and is an adjective. 

There is another use of " worth," entirely distinct from the foregoing. 
In the phrase, "Wo worth the chase," etc., it is agreed universally that 
" worth" is the Saxon Imperative of the verb weorthan, meaning simply 
be to, or betide, " Wo be (to) the chase," " Wo betide the chase," etc. 

9. Formerly, the preposition for was used before the infinitive 
mood; as, " What went ye out for to see?" This is not allow- 
able now. 

10. Sometimes one preposition immediately precedes another ; 
as, "From before the altar." The two prepositions in such cases 
should be considered as one, just as in the case of the compound 
prepositions upon, within, etc. 

11. Sometimes a preposition precedes an adverb ; as, at once, 
for ever, etc. The two words should be taken together, as in the 
preceding case, and called an adverb. 






RULE I.V. — PREPOSITIONS. 



117 



12. At and to. At is used after a verb of rest; as, " He resides 
at Madrid." lb is used after a verb of motion; as, "He went to 
Madrid.' 7 

13. Between and among. Between refers to two objects, among 
to more than two ; as, " There is no difference of opinion between 
the President and the Vice-President (two), although there is 
among the members of the Cabinet generally (more than two)." 

14. Words followed by appropriate prepositions. 



Absent from. 
Access to. 
Accused of. 
Acquit of. 
Adapt to. 
Affection for. 
Alien ate from. 
Alliance ivith. 
Bestow upon. 
Comply with. 
Consonant with. 
Depend upon. 
Dissent from. 
Made of. 
Martyr for. 
Need of. 
True to. 

( Agent charged with a thing. 

1 Thing charged on an agent. 

f Avert from (verb). 

\ Averse to (adjective). 
Differ with a person in opinion. 

" from him in character. 
Agree with a person. 
" to a thing. 



( Attribute to (verb). 
1 Attribute of (noun). 
r Diminished from (a verb). 
\ Diminution of (a noun). 
Betray to a person. 
" into a thing. 
Call on a person. 
" at a house. 
" for a thing. 
Confide to (transitive). 

" in (intransitive). 
Accord to (transitive). 

" with (intransitive). 
Compare to (for illustration). 

" with (for quality). 
Copy from nature. 

" after a parent. 
Defend others from. 

" ourselves against. 
Die of a disease. 
" by a sword. 
Reconcile a person to. 

" a thing with. 

Taste of (actual enjoyment). 
u for (capacity for enjoying) 



Many words derived from the Latin and Greek are compounded with a 
preposition. Some writers are disposed in such cases to adopt the classical 
usage, and make the following preposition correspond to the one found in 
the compound; as, "averse from," "depend from," etc. This is not ac-. 
cording to the idiom of the language, which requires a preposition corre- 
sponding to the actual, present meaning of the whole word, and not to the 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

original meaning of its constituent parts. " Averse " meant, originally, 
" turned from ; " it now means " opposed," " disinclined," and should be 
followed by " to." " Depend " meant, originally, " bang down from ; " it 
now means " rely upon" " lean upon/' etc. 

The usages of the language in regard to the prepositions are exceedingly 
various, and cannot be fully enumerated in an elementary work like the 
present. The more advanced student, who wishes to be accurate in this 
particular, should have by him some work of reference of standard author- 
ity, containing ample quotations from the best authors. The list in the 
text contains a few of the most common of these usages. 

Models for Parsing. 

" James writes a letter to his father" " Father " is a com. 
noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d. p., and in the obj. c, governed by the 
preposition " to," according to Rule IV. (Quote.) 

"To " is a preposition, showing the relation between "writes" 
and "father," and governs "father" in the obj. c, according to 
Rule IV. (Quote.) 

" God seeth in secret" " In " is a preposition, showing the re- 
lation between " seeth " and " places," or some such noun under- 
stood. The meaning is, "God seeth in secret places." 

Exercises. 

Parse the Prepositions, and the Nouns or Pronouns governed by them, in 
the following sentences, and correcting the sentences where necessary : 

Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue, and unfits a 
man for the duties of life. 

Between you and I, he has no scholarship to boast of. 

God, in whom I trust, will protect me. 

Confide to real friends only ; confide nothing in him who has 
once deceived you. 

If I compare my penmanship to yours, mine will suffer by the 
comparison. 

Newton, in order to show how little he had accomplished, com- 
pared himself with a child picking pebbles on the sea-shore. 

The Indian differs with the Caucasian in color. 

I differ from you on this point. 

Who did you receive that intelligence from? 

The book, which the story is printed in, is full of pictures. 



RULE IV— PREPOSITIONS. 119 

The delay in the printing renders the progress very slow of the 
work. 

Beyond this period, the arts cannot be traced of civil society. 

He is unacquainted with, and cannot speak upon, the subject. 

He dwelt upon, and strongly urged, your claims. 

I received, but had not time to reply to, your letter. 

The book is like its author. 

The fountain is near the city. 

His mother bought him a top. 

The next day they set out early in the morning, and travelled 
twenty miles. 

His health he little thought of. 

There is a room in the second story suitable for a single gentle- 
man with a fireplace. 

He was talking, while his class were quietly studying, in a loud 
voice, when his teacher entered, and chastised him, with noiseless 
steps. 

Who did you inquire of, at the house which you were sent to, 
and what did they complain of? 

He approved of and voted for this measure. 

I have noticed of late that the sky above and the earth beneath 
wear an appearance of gioom. 

I sought in vain for a cheerful spot, and at last gave up in de- 
spair. 

From within, a foul stench arose ; but from without, the sepul- 
chre was fair and comely. - 

I will take her for better, for worse. 

He addresses himself to the loyal. 

Though he was a child only five years old, he showed grown 
men an example worthy their imitation. 

Next her brother, stood a little girl, who asked the boy opposite 
her place, to lend her his book, but he churlishly refused her this 
simple request. 

The thermometer was two degrees below zero. 

He was sent home two weeks sooner than the usual time. 

Among a brother and a sister no strife should arise. 

Between the many religious sects he was unable to find one 
suited to his notions of religion. 

The army will remain in Washington for a day and then march 
at the nearest point of attack. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

He divided his estate between his wife, his son, and his 
daughter. 

His actions do not accord to his preaching; we cannot accord 
our support with him. 

It was difficult to reconcile the mother with the loss of her 
child ; she could not reconcile such an affliction to the goodness 
of God. 

Review. 

Parse all the objects of Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 
Parse all the Verbs (except those in the infinitive), and all the 
Nominatives. 



RULE V. 

A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case 

IS DEPENDENT UPON THE NoUN SIGNIFYING THE THING 
POSSESSED. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive is said to be governed by 
the noun signifying the thing possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. The possessive case is not the only way in which the idea of 
possession may be expressed. A very common mode of expressing 
this idea is by using the preposition of. Tims, " The house of my 
father," and " My father's house," express equally the idea of pos- 
session. In substituting one of these modes of expression for the 
other, care should be taken to see that the two expressions moan 
the same thing. In the expression, "The House of Represent- 
atives," " of" does not convey the idea of possession, but of compo- 
sition. It means the House or Assembly composed of Represent- 
atives. 

2. The noun governing the possessive ease is often omitted ; as, 
"I bought this slate at the bookseller's [shop]." In such cases, 
supply the omission, and parse according to the general rule. 

3. In consequence of ellipsis, there is sometimes an appearance 



RULE V. THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 



121 



of a double possessive; as, "This is a speech of the king's 
[speeches] ." Here, "of" does not denote possession. The 
meaning is, "This speech is one of the king's speeches." In all 
such instances, the preposition governs the noun understood, and 
the noun understood governs the possessive. 

4. The two modes of expression, " A picture of the king," and 
" A picture of the king's," never mean the same thing. The noun 
understood in the latter case is always plural, and the idea is 
always that of possession. The phrase, " A picture of the king's," 
implies that this is one out of many pictures, and that they be- 
long to the king. But, in the phrase, " A picture of the king," 
no intimation is given of a plurality of pictures, and the idea of 
possession is not necessarily, if ever, conveyed. 

5. In complex names and in complex titles, the sign of the pos- 
sessive is put only at the end, and the whole complex name, or 
title, is parsed as one word. Thus, "George Washington's fare- 
well address," not "George's Washington's," etc. 

6. A complex title sometimes consists of several words, some of 
which may be different parts of speech, and may have an indepen- 
dent construction of their own ; thus, " The captain of the guard's 
horse was slain." In parsing such a sentence, "of the guard" 
should be parsed first, each word separately, "guard" being in 
the objective. Then, "captain of the guard's" should be parsed 
as one complex name, in the possessive case, governed by "horse." 
The 's belongs not to "guard," but to the whole expression. These 
complex titles are sometimes written with a hyphen, as, "com- 
mander-in-chief." 

7. Where complex titles are used, the idea of possession may 
be conveyed by using " of," " belonging to," or something similar. 
This mode of expression in such cases is generally to be preferred 
to the use of 's. Thus, "The horse belonging to the captain of 
the guard was slain." 

8. When two or more nouns are connected in the possessive, 
expressing joint possession, the sign of the possessive should be 
annexed to the last only; as, "The king and queen's marriage." 
"King" here is to be parsed as the possessive, with the sign of 
the possessive omitted. If, however, several words intervene be- 
tween the nouns so connected, the sign of the possessive should 
not be omitted; as, "It was my father's, and also my mother's 
wish." 

11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

9. The sign of the possessive should not be omitted when sep- 
arate, instead of joint possession is expressed; as, " Washington's 
and Cornwallis's troops approached each other." 

10. When a noun or a pronoun in the possessive has one or more 
nouns in apposition, the sign of the possessive is often omitted 
after the noun or nouns in apposition; as, "For David thy 
father's sake." Here, " David" is parsed as in apposition with 
" father," and in the possessive, with the sign of possession 
omitted. "Here lies his head, a youth to fortune and to fame 
unknown." "Youth," here, is in the possessive (the sign of the 
possessive being omitted), and is in apposition with " his." The 
meaning is, " The head of him, a youth," etc. 

11. Care should be taken not to separate the possessive from 
the governing word by inserting explanatory clauses ; as, " She 
extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." 
In such cases, the idea of possession should be expressed by "of," 
or in some similar way. Thus, " She extolled the excellent un- 
derstanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

12. Certain compound pronouns in the possessive case are 
sometimes separated; as, " Whose house soever." This, however, 
is to be generally avoided. 

13. The possessive is sometimes governed by a participle used 
as a noun ; as, " The cause of John's forgetting the lesson was 
his anxiety about the excursion." Here, "John's" is in the 
possessive case, governed by " forgetting " used as a noun. It 
would not be correct to put " John " in the objective case gov- 
erned by " of." " Of," here, governs " forgetting," not " John." 
" The cause of John forgetting the lesson," should be, " The cause 
of John's forgetting the lesson." " The cause of him not doing 
it," should be, " The cause of his not doing it." 



Models for Parsing. 

" James writes a letter by his father's permission." " Father's " 
is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the poss. c, gov- 
erned by "permission," according to Rule V. (Quote.) 

" George Washington's Farewell Address has just been read." 
" George Washington's," a complex name, is a prop, noun, masc. 
g., sing, n., 3d p., poss. c, governed by "Address," according to 
Eule V. (Quote.) 



RULE V. — THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 123 
Exercises. 

Parse all the Nouns and Pronouns in the possessive case, in the following 
sentences, correcting the sentences wherever necessary : 

A man's manners often make his fortune. 

Asa's heart was perfect in the Lord's sight. 

Helen's beauty caused the destruction of Troy. 

The Representatives' House adjourned on the fifth of June. 

The Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. 

This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. 

The Archbishop of Baltimore's letter was published in the 
daily papers. 

William and Mary's reign was one of the most distinguished 
in English history. 

John and Mary's bookcase is filled, partly with his books, and 
partly with hers. 

John's and Mary's bookcases are both filled with books. 

William and Lucy's cloaks were lost. 

The Princeton and the Raritan's crews are now both complete. 

If he learn any trade, it should be his father's. 

He was tried at the magistrate's for stealing a parcel of rings 
at the jeweller's. 

The painting of Christ Healing the Sick is a picture of West. 

There are many pictures of Washington's on tavern signs. 

The farewell address of Washington's was read on the anni- 
versary of his death. 

It was the Sergeant-at-arms's duty to execute the Speaker of 
the House of Representatives' order. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury's opinion was preferred to the 
Archbishop of York's. 

Men and women's shoes are made very differently. 

Return for thy servants' sake, the people of thine inheritance. 

He took it out of Elishama the scribe's chamber. 

For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife. 

The captain and the lieutenant's swords were much alike in 
appearance. 

Scott's and Butler's store was destroyed by the fire, and all the 
goods belonging to the firm were burned. 

No one ever doubted Mad Anthony's, as he was called, bravery 
and skill. 



124 ENGLISH GEAMMAE — SYNTAX. 



Review. 



Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing sentences. 
Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Prepositions. 
Parse all the Prepositions. 
Parse all the Verbs, except those in the infinitive mood. 



RULE VI. 

A Noun or a Pronoun, put in Apposition with 

ANOTHER, AGREES WITH IT IN CASE. 

Note. — A word is said to be in apposition with another of the same kind, 
when one is used to explain or identify the other; as, "Smith, the book- 
seller, keeps a large supply of books." 

NOTES. 

1. The words in apposition may be in any case, nominative, 
possessive, or objective. 

2. When a word is in apposition with another in the possessive 
case, the sign of the possessive is sometimes omitted. 

" This is the wandering wood, this Error's den, 
A monster vile, whom God and man do hate." 

" Monster," here, is in the possessive case, the sign of the pos- 
sessive being'omitted, and is in apposition with " Error's." 

3. A noun may be put in apposition with a whole sentence; 
as, "He promptly acceded to my request, an act which redounds 
greatly to his honor." "Act" is here nominative, in apposition 
with the whole of the preceding sentence. 

4. When several words form one proper name, as " Thomas 
Jefferson," these words are in apposition, but they should be 
parsed together as one complex noun. In forming the plural 
number, or the possessive case, of such complex names, the sign 
should be put only at the end ; as, " The country has not had two 
Thomas Jeffersons ; " " Thomas Jefferson's works." 

5. When a proper name has a title prefixed, as, " General Greene," 



RULE VI.— APPOSITION. 125 

"Dr. Kush," "Mr. Stockton," the words are in apposition, but 
they should be parsed together as one complex noun. In form- 
ing the plural of such complex names, if, besides the article, 
there is a numeral adjective prefixed, the last word only should 
be plural ; as, " The two Mr. Stocktons." But if there is no nu- 
meral prefixed, the title only should be plural; as, "The Messrs. 
Stockton," "The Misses Stockton." 

6. One of the most frequent instances of apposition is where 
the proper noun of an object is appended to its common name ; 
as, "The river Delaware." It is a peculiarity of the English 
language that the proper names of places, when so appended, are 
not in apposition, but are put in the objective and governed by 
" of; " as, " The city of Philadelphia." 

7. The phrases " They love one another," " They love each 
other," etc., afford instances of apposition that very frequently 
occur. In the first of these examples, " one " is in the nomina- 
tive, and is in apposition with " they ; " and " another" is in the 
objective, governed by "love." The meaning is, "One loves 
another." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James writes a letter to his brother John." "John" is a 
prop, noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition with 
the noun " brother," according to Eule VI. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Apposition in the following sentences, 
correcting where necessary : 

Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm. 

Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, lies on the bank of 
the Susquehanna. 

The knife was given to me by my brother James, he that was 
here last week. 

Mr. Dale, the carpenter, him whom you saw here yesterday, is 
dead. 

Godliness with contentment are great gain. 

The hare is beset by death in various forms, snares, dogs, and 
the hunter's gun. 
11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

I met a fool, a crazy fool, in the streets, selling pictures, the 
works of his own idle fancy. 

They destroyed the vessel and returned without losing a single 
man, an exploit which was highly creditable. 

He was playing ball, an amusement of which boys are very fond. 

We Americans call England our mother country. 

I have two aunts Maryi 

Review. 

Parse all the Nominatives in the foregoing exercises. 
Parse all the Possessives. 

Parse the objects of all the Verbs and Prepositions. 
Parse all the Verbs and Prepositions. 



RULE VII. 

The Verb To Be has the same Case after it 
as before it. 

Note. — In such instances, the noun or pronoun after the verb is not in 
apposition with the noun or pronoun before it, but is a part of the predi- 
cate of the verb. " James commands the troops." The predicate "com- 
mands " may be resolved into the words "is commander of." "Com- 
mander" should be parsed as nominative after the verb is, and forming 
a part of the predicate. 

NOTES. 

1. This rule applies also to the verb become and to several 
other intransitive verbs, and also to the passive voice of some 
transitive verbs, such as to be named, to be called, etc. 

2. The verb to be in the infinitive mood used as a noun may 
have a noun or a pronoun after it without any other noun before 
it ; as, " To be a good man, is not so easy a thing as many people 
imagine." Here, "man" should be parsed as used indefinitely 
after the verb to be, without saying what its case is. The infini- 
tive mood of many other intransitive verbs, and likewise the in- 
finitive passive of some transitive verbs, may also have a noun or 
a pronoun after them used indefinitely; as, "To live a consistent 



RULE VII. — THE CASE AFTER TO BE. 127 

Christian is not easy," " To be called a Roman was counted a 
great honor,' 1 

It is not easy to say in what case the noun is in such sentences. The 
analogy of the Latin would seem to indicate the objective. Thus, "Not to 
know what happened in past years, is to be always a child." Latin, " sem- 
per esse puerum." In like manner, in English we say, "Its being me, need 
make no change in your determination." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James is commander of the troops." " Commander " is a 
com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., nom. c. after the verb "is," 
and forming a part of the predicate, according to Rule VII. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns after the verb in the same case with the 
noun or pronoun before it, in the following sentences, correcting where 
necessary : 

Thomson, the author of " The Seasons," is a delightful poet. 

The Senate caused Scylla to be proclaimed Dictator. 

Education, the great civilizer, is the best safeguard of that 
blood-bought blessing, liberty. 

This is Arnold's grave, that vile traitor who sold his country 
for money. 

There -are eight Kings Henry in English history. 

Wine has been his ruin. He entered manhood a pattern of 
sobriety, but died a miserable sot. 

When I reign king, thou shalt be my slave. 

Solomon is counted the wisest man of all ages. 

The carriage was returned a perfect wreck. 

To die a Christian is more desirable than to reign king. 

To live a coward accords better with some persons' inclination, 
than to leave the world a hero. 

Review. 

Parse all the Nominatives, Possessives, and Objectives in the 
foregoing sentences. 

Parse all the Verbs and Prepositions. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

RULE VIII. 

A Pronoun agrees with the Noun or the 
Pronoun for which it stands, in gender, number, 
and person. 

NOTES. 

1. When a pronoun stands for a Collective noun, in the sin- 
gular, the pronoun should be plural if the idea expressed by the 
noun is plural ; as, " Send the multitude away that they may buy 
themselves bread." But if the idea expressed by the noun is 
singular, the pronoun should be singular, and should be in the 
neuter gender. " The class is too large ; it must be divided into 
sections." 

2. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, the pronoun should be plural. Thus, " William and 
Mary were both there; I saw them." " He and Mary were both 
there ; I saw them." " He and she were both there ; I saw them." 
" Them " in the first example stands for two nouns, in the second 
example for a noun and a pronoun, and in the third for two 
pronouns. 

3. When a pronoun stands for two or more w r ords, connected 
by and, but used to express only one subject, the pronoun should 
be singular. Thus, " He knew his Lord and Saviour, and loved 
him." 

4. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, in the sin- 
gular, and connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be sin- 
gular. Thus, " Either play or work is injurious, if it is carried to 
excess." 

5. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, but of different persons, the pronoun agrees with the first 
person rather than the second, and with the second rather than 
the third. Thus, " William and I had our skates with us." 
" Our" and " us " are plural, because they stand for two subjects, 
" William " and " I." But one of these subjects, " William," 
being in the third person, and the other, " I," being in the first 
person, the pronoun which stands for both must be in the first 
person. We would not express the meaning, if we were to say, 
" William and I had their skates with them" 

6. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 



RULE VIII. THE PRONOUN. 129 

by and, but of different genders, the gender of the pronoun is in- 
determinate, and must be omitted in parsing ; as. " I saw the man 
and his portrait side by side, and I could hardly tell them apart, 
so great was the likeness. " Here, "them" stands for "man" 
(masc.) and "portrait" (neuter); the gender of " them " there- 
fore cannot be determined. 

7. Words of different genders or persons, connected by or or nor, 
cannot be correctly represented by a single pronoun. Thus, 

"Mary or William has lost book." We cannot supply the 

blank with her, his, or their. Again, " He or I have lost 

book." We cannot supply the blank with his, my, their, or our. 

8. A pronoun may stand for an infinitive mood ; as, u To con- 
tradict an aged person may be rude, but it is not criminal." A 
pronoun may stand also for a part of a sentence; as, " He is very 
witty, but unfortunately he is aware of it." The pronoun in such 
cases should be in the third person, neuter gender, and singular 
number. But if there are two or more infinitives, or clauses, 
making distinct subjects, then the pronoun should be plural ; as, 
"To be temperate, and to use exercise in the open air, are good 
preservatives of health, but they are not infallible." 

9. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely, that is, with- 
out standing for any particular noun. Thus, " Come and trip it 
as you go," " It rains," " It was he that did it," etc. 

10. The gender of a noun is sometimes changed by personifi- 
cation. In such instances, a similar change occurs in the gender 
of the pronoun ; as, " The ship has lost her anchor." 

11. We frequently, and you generally, are used to represent the 
singular. It is improper in such cases to change the construction 
during the progress of a sentence ; as, " You were true to me in 
the day of trouble, and thy kindness I can never forget." It 
should be either "thou" and "thy," or "you" and "your." 

12. Who is used in referring to persons ; Which is used in re- 
ferring to inferior animals, to things without life, to infants, to 
collective nouns where unity of idea is expressed, and to persons 
in asking questions where the particular individual is inquired 
for. " Which " was formerly applied to persons as well as things ; 
as, " Our Father, which art in heaven." 

13. That is used instead of Who or Which in the following 
cases : 

1. After two antecedents, one requiring who, and the other 

I 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

requiring which ; as, " The man and the house that we saw 
yesterday." 

2. After the Superlative; as, " It is the best book that can be got." 

3. After Same ; as, " He is the same kind-hearted man that he 
used to be." 

4. After All, or any similar antecedent expressing a general 
meaning, limited by the following verb ; as, " All that heard me 
cau testify." 

5. After Who, used interrogatively, as, " Who, that has seen 
anything of human nature, can believe it ? " 

6. After It, used indefinitely ; as, " It was he that did it." 

14. When the relative has two antecedents, of different persons, 
one before and the other after the verb to be, the relative agrees in 
person with the nearest ; as, " I am the man who commands you." 
Where a different meaning is intended, the relative should be 
placed nearer the first antecedent ; as, " I who command you, am 
the man." 

15. The relative should be placed near its antecedent to prevent 
ambiguity ; thus, " The boy broke his slate, whom everybody be- 
lieved incapable of doing mischief," should be, " The boy, whom 
everybody believed incapable of doing mischief, broke his slate." 

16. The relative is sometimes omitted ; as, " The letter [which] 
you wrote me on Saturday, came duly to hand." This is allow- 
able only in colloquial language. 

17. The antecedent is sometimes omitted ; as, " [The person] 
who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

18. What is sometimes apparently used as an adverb, but in all 
such cases the ellipsis can be supplied ; as, " What doth it profit 
a man?" that is, " [In] what [respect] doth it profit a man?" 

19. What should not be used for the conjunction that Thus, 
"I don't know but what I shall go," should be, " I don't know but 
that I shall go." 

WJiichsoever, whatsoever, etc., are sometimes written as two w r ords 
with other words intervening ; " which side soever. 17 In parsing, 
the two parts of the word should be taken together as one word. 

Models for Parsing. 



" John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." " Who ' 
is a rel. pron., 3d p., sing, n., masc. g., to agree with " John," 






RULE VIII. — THE PRONOUN. 131 

according to Rule VIII. (quote), and is in the nom. c. to " was," 
according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

" It" (in the second example under Note 1) is a pers. pron., 3d 
p., and in the sing, n., n. g., to agree with " class," a collective 
noun expressing unity of idea, according to Rule VIII., Note 1 
(quote Note), and is in the nom. c. to "must be divided," accord- 
ing to Rule I. (Quote.) 

" Us " (in the example, Note Iff) is a pers. pron., standing for 
" William " and " I," two words of different persons ; it is there- 
fore in the 1st p., according to Note $, Rule VIII. (quote Note), 
pi. n., according to Note 2, Rule VIII. (quote Note), and obj. c, 
governed by the preposition "with," according to Eule IV. 
(Quote.) 

"That" (in the first example, Note 13) is a rel. pron., relating 
to the two antecedents, " man " and " house," and used instead 
of "who" or "which," according to Note 13, Rule VIII. (quote 
Note), pi. n., according to Note 2, Rule VIII. (quote Note), and 
0D J- c -y governed by the verb "saw," according to Eule III. 
(Quote.) 

"He reads what is written." "What" is a rel. pron., and re- 
lates to the object of " reads," understood. It is in the 3d p., 
sing, n., n. g., and is in the nom. c. to " is written," according to 
Rule I. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse all the Pronouns in the following sentences, correcting and supply- 
ing omissions where necessary : 

He only who is active and industrious can experience real 
pleasure. 

He who is a stranger to industry may possess wealth, but he 
cannot enjoy it. 

Trust not him whose friendship is bought with gold. 

The boys replied to the general, "We come to you to complain 
of your soldiers ; they have destroyed our playground. We re- 
quested them not to disturb it, but they called us rebels." 

The multitude seek pleasure as its chief good. 

The Board of School Controllers have just published its annual 
report. 

If your rudeness and noise continue, it will effectually hinder 
you from gaining any benefit. 



132 ENGLISH GEAMMAE — SYNTAX. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. 

The army was eating its dinner, when it was surprised. 

The family of Adam include the whole human race ; you and 
I are a part of them. 

The silent circle fans itself in-doors, while the coachman with- 
out is famished with cold. 

It appears to have been John and James who were guilty. 

What is it that vexes you ? 

The moon shed her pale light over the landscape. 

Lay up in thy heart what you have now heard. 

Do unto others as thou wouldst have others do unto you. 

[Supply relatives before parsing.] The ship 1 saw had a 

cargo was very valuable; its captain was a man every 

member of the crew obeyed, though was composed of men 

of the worst character. 

Who, who ever had a man or a beast, which served him faith- 
fully, would say, it is they who should thank me ; I have nothing 
for which to feel grateful. 

Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw. 

It is the same picture which you saw before. 

All which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave. 

Who, who has any sense of religion, will argue thus ? 

The lady and the lapdog which we saw in the window. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had 
never before been guilty of so unjust an action. 

The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. 

This is the friend which I love. 

This is the vice whom I hate. 

The infant whom you see in the cradle is sick. 

Who of those men came to his assistance? 

Thou art the man who has done the crime, and I who suffers 
the penalty, am innocent. 

Take that book to the library, which I left on my table. 

There was a bird caught by the fox, which was web-footed. 

The criminal was hung by the sheriff, who committed this 
shocking murder. 

That officer was selected to arrest the thief, in whom the Mayor 
placed the utmost confidence. 

This soldier was never rewarded by his captain, who was the 
bravest private in his company, because he differed with him in 
politics. 



RULE IX. — THE ARTICLE. 133 

[Supply relatives before parsing.] The house I live in and 
the furniture it contains are the products of the industry of the 
many toilsome hours I spent in active business. 

[Supply antecedent.] Who tempers the wind to the shorn 
lamb, will take care of me. 

Whom I respect I obey, not those I have no confidence in. 

[Insert proper pronouns in dotted spaces, and verbs in the 
other.] 

The school composed of both sexes ; . . . been divided 

into two departments. 

The Cabinet divided in . . . opinion. 

The legislature . . . meetings at Harrisburg ; my brother 

is a member of . . . 

He had experienced hunger and thirst, and therefore knew 
what it was without a description. 

Every officer and every soldier were at their post. 

Why should dust and ashes exhibit their pride, or flesh and 
blood glory in their strength ? 

Either my father, or any other man could have had the right 
to express their opinions. 

Hunger or thirst I can bear ; they give pain to the body ; but 
the pangs of a guilty conscience I cannot bear. 

She or Mary must have left their candle burning. 



RULE IX. 

An Article belongs to the Noun which it 
qualifies or points out. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the article belongs is often understood. 
In that case, supply the noun, and parse the article according to 
the Rule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. Thus, " Turn 
neither to the right [hand], nor to the left [hand]." "Henry the 
Eighth [king of that name] was then reigning." 

2. If there is an adjective before the noun, the article must 
12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

precede the adjective; as, "a virtuous man," not "virtuous a 
man." If the adjective before the noun is all, such, many, what, 
or both, or if the adjective is preceded by too, so, as, or how, the 
article must come after the adjective; as, "all the men," "such 
a sight," "too serious an undertaking," etc. 

3. When two or more adjectives connected belong to the same 
subject, the article is used before the first only; as, "a red and 
white flag," i. e., one flag, partly red and partly white. But, when 
the adjectives belong to different subjects, the article is used be- 
fore each ; as, " a red and a white flag," i. e., two flags, one red 
and one white. 

4. In using the comparative with than, if the nouns before and 
after " than " both refer to the same subject, the article should be 
used before the first only; as, "He is a better speaker than 
writer;" but, if the nouns refer to different subjects, the article 
should be repeated before both; as, "A man makes a better 
soldier than a woman." 

5. A or an is joined to nouns in the singular number only; as, 
" a man." The exceptions to this are apparent rather than real. 
Thus, " a few things," means a certain number of things, and not 
more; "a thousand men" means one thousand of men, and not 
two thousand, etc. The a should be parsed as belonging to the 
words " few," " thousand," etc., used as nouns in the singular, 
and the word following governed by of understood. 

6. A marked difference of meaning is produced by the use or 
the omission of a before few and little, "He has a little decency," 
means he has at least some. " He has little decency," intimates 
a doubt whether he has any. 

7. A is often an abbreviation for some other short word, at, in, 
on, etc. ; as, " His greatness is a ripening." In such cases it is 
not an article, but a preposition, and is to be parsed accordingly. 

8. " The more you examine the book, the better you will like it." 
In such expressions, the article must be parsed as limiting the 
adverb. 

For the explanation of this construction, we must revert to the earlier 
form of the language. In its Anglo-Saxon form, the article was a demon- 
strative pronoun, and was regularly declined, like the corresponding words 
in Latin and Greek. In the construction now under consideration, the 
article was in the case called the Instrumental, corresponding in the main 
to the Latin ablative. "By that you examine the book more, by that you 



RULE IX. THE ARTICLE. 135 

will like it better." The English phrase has an almost exact equivalent in 
the Latin, Quo majus, eo melius. 

Model for Parsing. 

"James writes a letter." " A" is the ind. art., and belongs to 
the noun " letter," according to Rule IX. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Articles in the following sentences, correcting where necessary: 

At first the enemy gave way, but afterward he repulsed the 
left of our line. 

Time destroys both the great and the small. 

Glory to God in the highest. 

A too severe discipline is tyranny. 

The banner of the United States is a red, a white, and a blue 
flag. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

He is a better poet than a historian. 

A rosy-faced and pale girl were seen on the right of the room. 

Truth is a mightier weapon than sword. 

Disease is a greater destroyer than earthquake. 

Mr. C, having tried the stage and pulpit, was found to be a 
better minister than an actor. 

He had a few pupils, who came twice a week to receive his 
lessons. They preferred this to going a hunting. 

The louder he spoke, the less he was heard, and the noise made 
by the audience became the greater. 

He who uses filthy language has a little decency. 

He who merely is ashamed of soiled clothes, shows thereby 
that he has little decency. 

He was such a tyrant that a few persons mourned at his death. 

As everybody knew him to be a thief, a few persons intrusted 
their goods to him. 

Review. 

Parse all the ISouns, Pronouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the 
foregoing sentences. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

RULE X. 

An Adjective belongs to the Noun or the 
Pronoun which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the adjective belongs is sometimes omit- 
ted ; as, " Of two evils, choose the least . . . ." In that case, 
supply the omission, and parse the adjective according to the 
Eule, as belonging to the noun thus supplied. 

2. An adjective sometimes qualifies an infinitive mood, or a 
part of a sentence, used as a noun ; as, " To use profane language 
is both foolish and wicked." In such cases the adjective should 
be parsed as belonging to the infinitive mood, or the part of a 
sentence. 

3. The infinitive mood or the participle is sometimes found 
with an adjective after it not qualifying any particular noun, that 
is, used indefinitely ; as, " To be good is the surest way of being 
happy" " Good," here, is to be parsed by saying that it is an 
adjective used indefinitely after the infinitive. In like manner, 
" happy " is used indefinitely after the participle. 

4. When an adjective expresses any number (more than one), 
the noun or pronoun to which it belongs must be plural; as, "ten 
pounds," not "ten pound." Some nouns, however, have a plural 
meaning with a singular form ; as, " Ten sail of the line." In 
such instances the plural form of the noun is not required. 

5. When two adjectives precede a noun, both expressing num- 
ber, one of them may express the idea of unity, the other that of 
plurality; as, "one hundred men," "the first hundred lines," etc. 
In these instances, the several things are considered in their 
aggregate capacity, as forming one whole. The rule of construc- 
tion is, to make the noun plural, and put the singular adjective 
before the plural one; as, "the first hundred lines," not "the 
hundred first lines." 

6. By an idiom of the English language, many is sometimes 
used before the singular with a prefixed; as, "many a flower." 

7. The comparative degree generally refers to two objects, the 
superlative to two or more ; as, " John is the taller of the two," 
" John is the tallest of the whole number." 



RULE X. — THE ADJECTIVE. 137 

8. The comparative considers the objects compared as belong- 
ing to different classes; as, "Eve was fairer than any of her 
daughters." The superlative considers the objects as belonging 
to one class; as, "Eve was the fairest of women," 

9. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper. Thus, 
" A worser man," should be, "A worse man;" "The most politest 
boy," should be, "The politest boy." 

10. Some adjectives express a quality incapable of increase or 
diminution ; as, chief, extreme, universal, etc. In such cases, the 
comparative and superlative terminations should not be used. 

11. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs, that is, to qual- 
ify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. "He speaks correct," 
should be, "He speaks correctly;" "A sufficient long time," 
should be, "A sufficiently long time;" "He came remarkable 
soon," should be, " He came remarkably soon." 

12. Sometimes the adjective seems to qualify a verb; as, "The 
egg is boiled hard," " The apple tastes sweet" " The board looks 
smooth, but it is rough." Here the meaning is, "The egg is 
boiled until it is hard ; " " The apple tastes as if it were sweet ; " 
" The board looks as if it were smooth." As the quality is thus 
connected with the preceding noun or pronoun, the word is an 
adjective, and it should be so parsed. 

13. In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used in the sense of 
an adverb; as, "Slow rises merit when by poverty oppressed." 
In these cases, the word is an adverb, and should be so parsed. 

14. An adjective is sometimes used as a noun ; as, " None but 
the brave deserve the fair;" "All partial evil is but universal 
good" 

Model for Parsing. 

"James writes a long letter." "Long" is an adj., in the pos. 
deg. ("long, longer, longest"), and belongs to "letter," which it 
qualifies or describes, according to Rule X. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Adjectives in the following sentences, correcting where neces- 
sary : 

A great reward has been offered for the detection ,of the criminal. 
The best men are liable to occasional infirmities of temper. 
12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

To repine at the prosperity of others is despicable. 

To be ever active in laudable pursuits is highly meritorious. 

There are six foot of water in the hold. 

Chimborazo is the highest of any mountain in Europe. 

Spain at one time possessed a greater commerce than any 
nation in Europe. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the 
lesser weight it carries. 

Sing the three first and the last stanzas of the hymn. 

There is no more universal sentiment than this. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man. 

He writes elegant. She sings sweet. 

To drink wine to excess is destructive of health. 

To practise virtue is more acceptable to God than the sacrifice 
of bullocks or of rams. 

To be wise to-day is the way to commence to be wise. 

To remain ignorant in a land like ours is inexcusable. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; the good is often buried 
with them. 

The vain, the wealthy, and the proud, are not the proper per- 
sons to be imitated. 

"Then give Humility a coach and six." 

That style of dress is more admired by some than this. Let 
each lady indulge their own taste. 

Those who go to war must expect to suffer many privations ; 
some will die, and others lose their limbs. 

Every station in life has its cares. 

The hay is sufficient for ten heads of horses, allowing twenty 
pound to each horse. 

The ten first men marched two by two. 

Consumption is the most destructive of the other diseases, and 
more common than any disease in the United States. 

Walls of solid granite are no adequate protection against the 
enginery of modern warfare. 

Review. 

Parse the Articles, Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions in the fore- 
going sentences. 



RULE XI. THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 139 

RULE XL 

An Adjective Pronoun belongs to the Noun 
or the Pronoun which it qualifies or points 
out. 

NOTES. 

1. The Distributives and Demonstratives agree in number 
with the nouns to which they belong ; as, " This sort of persons," 
not " These sort." The distributives, each, every, either, neither, 
are all singular. Of the demonstratives, this and that are singular, 
these and those plural. 

2. The personal pronoun should not be used for the adjective 
pronoun ; as, " those books," not " them books." 

3. Either is sometimes used improperly for each; as, " Nadab 
and Abihu took either of them his censer." Grammatically, this 
means that only one of them took a censer, whereas the meaning 
intended is that they both did so. It should be " each." 

4. The noun is often understood after adjective pronouns. In 
such cases, supply the noun, and parse as usual ; as, " Let each 
.... do his duty." 

5. None, though meaning according to its composition no one, 
yet represents nouns in the plural as well as in the singular: 
" We hunted for berries, but found none ;" "A copy of the work 
was wanted, but none was to be had." None is never used except 
when the noun to which it belongs is omitted. 

Model for Parsing. 

"James wrote this letter." "This" is a dem. adj. pron., be- 
longing to " letter," according to Eule XL (quote), and is in the 
singular number, to agree with " letter," according to Note 1, 
Eule XL (Quote.) 

(N. B. — In parsing any other adjective pronoun, except the 
distributives and indefinites, the last part of the Model must be 
omitted.) 

Exercises. 

Parse the Adjective Pronouns in the following sentences, correcting 
where necessary : 

Those men only are great who are good. 

Those men who despise the admonitions of their friends deserve 
the evils which their own obstinacy brings upon them. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Those sort of people fear nothing. 

Who broke this scissors ? 

He adhered strictly to his profession, and by those means 
gained success. 

Virtue and vice are as opposite to each other as light and 
darkness; this ennobles the mind, that debases it. 

Them kind of favors did real injury. 

The king of Israel and the king of Judah sat either of them 
on his throne. 

Such as are diligent will be rewarded. 

Some are naturally timid, others are bold and active. 

Give to each his own. 

This oats is of those species called wild oats. 

These sort of vegetable productions are considered mere weeds. 

In the Bible, tares and wheat are used to represent different 
kinds of men ; that, to denote the good, and this, the bad. 

Either of them Siamese twins were so joined to the other at 
the breast that one could not move without the other. 

Either side of that square field is of the same length as the 
three others. 

Some whom I considered my enemies assisted, while none 
really pitied me ; each one who rendered me assistance, did so 
because their conscience, and not their love for me, prompted 
them. 

The smallest of the twins seemed the more intelligent of the 
six children. 

Samuel was the strongest of all his brothers, and Mary the 
neatest of the other members of the family. 

It would be a queer world, if every one might do as they 
like. 

The silence of nature is more impressive, would we understand 
it, than any speech could be : it expresses what no speech can 
utter. 

The greatness of a gift cannot be determined by its absolute 
amount : it can be truly ascertained only by a moral standard. 

Review. 

Parse all the other Pronouns, Nouns, Adjectives, Articles, and 
Verbs in the foregoing sentences. 



RULE XII. THE PARTICIPLE. 141 



RULE XII. 

A Participle belongs to the Noun or the 
Pronoun which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, either in the nomi- 
native case or in the objective ; as, " Writing letters is easier than 
writing compositions " (nom.) ; "In writing letters he soon be- 
came expert" (obj.). In these instances, the participle, as a part 
of the verb, retains its government of the objective. 

2. The participle used as a noun, is frequently found govern- 
ing another noun in the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on 
John's writing his letters rapidly." 

3. The participle is sometimes used as a noun merely; as, 
"Avoid foolish talking and jesting" When so used, parse the 
word simply as a noun in the third person, neuter gender. 

4. The participle is sometimes used simply as an adjective; as, 
"Singing birds abound in summer," "He is a learned man." 
When a participle is so used, call it a participial adjective, and 
parse it as any other adjective. 

5. When a participial noun has an article before it, it should 
have "of" after it; as, " The learning of Greek," not " The learn- 
ing Greek." In such sentences, the article and the preposition 
should either both be used, or both omitted. The latter is by 
far the most common. 

6. When the article and the preposition are both used in con- 
nection with a participial noun, the meaning is generally the 
same as when they are both omitted. Thus, "The learning q/ 
languages," means the same as " learning languages." This, 
however, is not always the case ; as, " He confessed the whole in 
the hearing of three witnesses," "The court spent an hour in hear 1 - 
ing the witnesses." It is perhaps impossible to give a rule which 
shall direct in all cases when to use and when to omit the article 
and the preposition. 

7. A participle of the verb to be may have a noun or a pronoun 
after it in apposition with the one before it : as, " Thomas, being 
an apt scholar, won the favor of his teacher." This rule applies 
also to the participles of many other intransitive verbs, and like- 



142 ENGLISH GKAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

wise to the participles of the passive voice of some transitive 
verbs; as, " Solomon, while reigning king, built the temple/' 
" Washington, being appointed commander-in-chief, proceeded at 
once to Cambridge.' 7 

8. A participle of the verb to be, when used as a participial 
noun, may have a noun after it used indefinitely; as, "His being 
a good penman soon gained him employment." Here, " penman " 
is not nominative to " gained," nor is it in apposition with any- 
thing understood before "being," but must be parsed as used 
indefinitely after the participle " being." This rule applies also 
to the participles of many other intransitive verbs, and likewise 
to the participles of the passive voice of some transitive verbs ; 
as, " Living a consistent Christian is not easy," " Being called a 
Roman was counted a great honor." 

9. A participle may be used indefinitely after the infinitive of 
the verb to be, used as a noun ; as, " To be forever in one place, 
doing nothing, would be intolerable." " Doing," here, belongs 
to no noun, that is, it is used indefinitely. This rule applies also 
to participles after the infinitive mood of many other intransitive 
verbs, and likewise of some transitive verbs in the passive voice ; 
as, "To remain doing nothing would be intolerable," "To be 
found dealing is a disgrace." 

10. When the noun to which a participle belongs is in the 
nominative absolute, this fact should always be mentioned in 
parsing the participle. 

11. Care should be taken not to confound the past tense and 
the perfect participle; as, " He began to write," not "He begun 
to write;" "He did it," not "He done it;" "He saw it," not 
" He seen it," etc. 

12. Care should be taken not to use the past tense instead of 
the perfect participle after the auxiliaries to have and to be ; as, 
" He has gone home," not " He has went home ; " " It was writ- 
ten," not " It was wrote." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James, having written a letter, sent it to the Post-office." 
" Having written " is a comp. perf. part., act. v., of the irr. trans, 
verb "to write" (write, wrote, written), and belongs to "James," 
according to Rule XII. (Quote.) 



RULE XII. THE PARTICIPLE. 143 

Exercises. 

Parse the Participles in the following sentences, correcting where neces- 
sary : 

Knowledge, softened by good breeding, makes a man beloved 
and admired. • 

Having finished his speech, he descended from the platform. 

The youthful poet, while walking alone in the woods, fell into 
a reverie. 

Precept has little influence, if not enforced by example. 

True honor, as defined by Cicero, is the concurrent approbation 
of good men. 

Much depends on the pupil observing the rules. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily ? 

I remember it being done. 

The learning anything speedily requires great application. 

By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 

By observing of these rules you may avoid mistakes. 

This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. 

His being called a wit did not make him one. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor to deny. 

The sun rising, darkness flees away. 

Thus repulsed, our final hope is flat despair. 

He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 

He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity. 

I would have wrote a letter. 

He had mistook his true interest. 

The coat had no seam, but was wove throughout. 

The French language is spoke in every kingdom in Europe. 

Having taken much medicine, and continuing to grow worse, 
my distressed mother said that giving me medicine seemed use- 
less. Travelling was then tried with encouraging signs of my 
growing better. 

His lesson being learned, and his other duties having been 
performed, he was to have a ride on horseback, he selecting the 
route to be taken. 

Breaking of windows by the throwing stones is a species of 
mischief which is as wronff as dishonestv. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Having been educated a teacher, I must follow my profession. 

When the Pilgrims had come to America, the streams were 
froze, the birds had flew to warmer regions ; the fierce wintry 
wind blowed; they had been drove from their comfortable homes. 
To forsake the land of their birth was indeed sad ; but to have 
forsook their faith, would have showed a want of sincerity and 
fortitude. 

William done a gross act of injustice. 

Review. 

Parse all the other words in the foregoing sentences, except the 
Adverbs and the Conjunctions. 



o*K<> 



RULE XIII. 

An Adverb belongs to the Verb, xAdjective, 
or other Adverb which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. Adverbs are generally placed before adjectives, after verbs, 
and often between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He is very 
attentive." " She behaves well" " They are much esteemed." 
This rule is far from being universal in its application. It is in 
fact impossible to give any one rule which shall determine the 
position of the adverb in all circumstances. 

2. Adverbs should not be used where adjectives are required, 
that is, to qualify nouns or pronouns. Thus, " He dressed in a 
style conformable to the ruling fashion," not "conformably" 
" The dress looked pretty" not "prettily." " Pretty," here, is an 
adjective describing "dress," and does not qualify the verb 
" looked." It does not express the manner of looking. 

3. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, 
because it is implied. Custom, however, has in a great measure 
sanctioned the violation of this rule. 

4. Hither, thither, and whither, were formerly used after verbs 



RULE XIII. — THE ADVERB. 145 

of motion. They are now used only on solemn occasions. Thus, 
" Come here" not " Come hither." 

5. Where and when are often incorrectly used instead of which 
and its adjuncts ; as, " The situation where (in which) I found 
him," "Since when (which time) I have not seen him." 

6. There is often used as a mere expletive, its only force being 
to introduce the verb before its nominative ; as, " There is truth 
in the old proverb." In such sentences, there does not mean in 
that place. 

7. How should not be used for that; as, " He said how he would 
do it," It should be " that." 

8. No never qualifies a verb. When there is an ellipsis of the 
verb, no is sometimes incorrectly used instead of not; as, " Will 
you walk or no f " It should be " not," as will be seen by sup- 
plying the ellipsis. Thus, "Will you walk, or (will you) not 
(walk)?" 

9. Nay y no, yea, yes, expressing simply negation or affirma- 
tion, contain in themselves a complete sense, and do not belong 
to any verb. The same is true of Amen. 

10. Two negatives are improper, if intended to express the 
same negation. When so used, they destroy each other, and are 
equivalent to an affirmative. Thus, "I cannot by no means 
allow it," should be, " I can by no means allow it,"' or " I cannot 
by any means allow it." 

11. Sometimes, when one of the negatives (such as dis, in, un, 
im, etc.) is joined to another word, the two negatives form a 
pleasing and delicate mode of affirming; as, "His language, 
though simple, is not ^elegant," that is, " It is elegant." 

12. An adverb should not be placed between the infinitive and 
its auxiliary to. " He preferred to not go " should be " He pre- 
ferred not to go." " He determined to thoroughly understand it " 
should be " He determined to understand it thoroughly." 

Model for Parsing. 
"James wrote a letter hastily." "Hastily" is an adv. in the 
pos. deg. (hastily, more hastily, most hastily), and belongs to 
the verb "wrote," according to Bule XII." (Quote.) 

"A thoroughly bad man." " Thoroughly " is an adv. in the 
pos. deg. (thoroughly, more thoroughly, most thoroughly), and 
belongs to the adj. " bad," according to Rule XII. (Quote.) 
13 K 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

Exercises. 

Parse all the Adverbs in the following sentences, and make the necessary 
corrections : 

A very smart child may learn more rapidly than is desirable. 

Economy, prudently conducted, leads very rapidly to wealth. 

She is particularly beautiful. 

The most cautious are frequently deceived. 

We should not be overcome totally by present events. 

He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard attentively 
by the whole assembly. 

He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and 
religion. 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 

He drew up a paper, where he too frequently represented his 
own merit. 

He left Philadelphia last December, since when he has not 
been heard of. 

Whether you study or no, you never know the lesson at the 
time of recitation. You don't do nothing correct. 

He did not say whether his father would consent or no. 

He will never be no taller. 

They could not travel no farther. 

Covet neither riches, or honors, or no such perishing things. 

It was cold exceedingly; the north wind incessantly blew; I 
have experienced seldom so severe a winter. 

This is an often error made by children in talking ; it is of 
seldom occurrence in writing. 

She looks coldly, she is not warm enough dressed. 

Some persons are of such a nature that they look cold upon 
those who treat them affectionate. 

He arrived at the house where I live, but started from thence 
immediately. 

The best of men not unfrequently are misled by the machina- 
tions of the crafty. 

Review. 

Parse all the other words in the foregoing sentences, except the 
Conjunctions. 



RULE XIV. — THE INFINITIVE. 147 



RULE XIV. 

The Infinitive Mood depends upon some Verb, 
Adjective, or Noun. 

Explanation. — The infinitive limits and complements the meaning 
of the word on which it depends. " I desire to sleep," " Prone to sleep," 
" A time to sleep." Here, if we have nut the infinitive, the meaning in 
each case is incomplete. The words, "to sleep," are needed, both* to fill 
out the sense of the word on which they depend, and to give the word its 
intended limitation. 

NOTES. 

1. The preposition to, which is used in making the form called 
the infinitive mood, and which is generally called the sign of the 
infinitive mood, is not to be parsed by itself, but with the verb. 

There is no more incongruity in thus combining a verb and a preposition, 
than in combining an adverb and a preposition, as in " at once," or in com- ' ^-^ 
bining a verb and its auxiliary. To iS|in factjan auxiliary of the infinitive 
mood. Such combinations are among the most common contrivances of ' ' 
language. In the earlier form of the language, the infinitive was marked, j 
as it is in Greek and Latin, by a termination of its own. In course of 
time, this termination, an, was dropped, and to, which in the verbal forma- 
tion had originally been used for quite a different purpose, came into use 
as a sign of the infinitive. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is generally omitted after the- 
active voice of the verbs bid, dare (to venture), need, make, see, 
hear, feel, let, and some others; as, "I saw him (to) do it." In 
the passive voice of these verbs, however, the " to " is generally 
expressed ; as, "He was seen to do it." 

3. To, the sign of the infinitive, should not be separated from 
the verb by inserting between " to " and the verb any other word 
or words. Thus, " I am resolved to not go," should be, " I am 
resolved not to go." 

4. The infinitive seems sometimes to depend upon other parts 
of speech, besides those enumerated in the rule. Thus, " Be so 
good as (conjunction) to read this letter." In such cases, the 
sentence is elliptical. Thus, " Be so good as (you must be in 
order) to read this letter." 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

5. The infinitive is sometimes used apparently without depend- 
ence upon any word ; as, " To speak plainly, I do not entirely 
approve your conduct." This construction also is elliptical; as, 
" (in order) to speak plainly," etc. 

6. The infinitive mood is frequently used as a noun, and at the 
same time retains its government of the objective case. Thus, 
"To write letters is easy." Here, "to write," as a noun, is nomi- 
native to "is," and at the same time, as a verb, governs "letters." 

7. Tense of the Infinitive. — Whenever the action or event 
signified by the infinitive is contemporary or future with respect 
to the verb on which it depends, the present tense of the infini- 
tive is required. Hence, verbs expressive of hope, desire, inten- 
tion, or command, must invariably be followed by the present, 
and not the perfect infinitive. Thus, "I expected to have found 
him," should be, " I expected to find him." 

Model for Parsing. 

" James tried to write a letter." " To write " is a trans, verb, 
irr., act. v., inf. m., pres. t., and governed by the verb " tried," 
according to Eule XIV. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Parse all the Infinitives in the following sentences, and make the neces- 
sary corrections : 

A man anxious to reach home will aim to be at the station in 
time to secure his seat. 

A good man loves to do good. They have a wish to learn. 

He has written some things hard to be understood. 

The desire to be rich is one of the strongest of human desires. 

A man eager to learn the truth is not apt to fall into error. 

She is worthy to be loved. They need not to call her. 

I dare not to proceed so hastily. He bade me to go home. 

He was seen write the letter. 

It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to approve 
the one, and to reject the other. 

He was seen do it, though I heard his father to tell him not to 
do it. 

Help me to finish this work, and you will not find the time 
to pass so slowly. 



RULE XV. — THE CONJUNCTION. 149 

I did not intend for to hurt him. 

This is for to let you know how I am well. 

He begged to have been released from his prison. 

To live righteously, soberly, and godly, is required of all men. 

To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the 
open air, and to preserve the mind from tumultuous emotions, 
are the best preservatives of health. 

I am not so stupid as to make such an error. 

To be candid with you, I must say, you did wrong. 

Not to leave you under the impression that I was one of your 
supporters, I tell you I did not vote for you. 

Review. 

Parse all the other words in the foregoing sentences, except 
the Conjunctions. 



RULE XV. 

A Conjunction connects the words, sentences, 

IS, BETWJ 
NOTES. 

1. The words connected by conjunctions must be of the same 
class. Nouns are connected with nouns, adjectives with adjec- 
tives, verbs with verbs, adverbs with adverbs, etc. Nouns and 
pronouns are here counted as belonging to one class. 

2. There is sometimes an ellipsis of one of the words or sen- 
tences, giving an appearance of a conjunction not truly connec- 
tive; as, "That John has written his letter, is easily proved." 
Here, "that" seems simply to introduce a clause which is the 
subject of the verb. But by supplying the ellipsis, " (the fact) 
that John has written," etc., the true connective character of the 
conjunction appears. 

3. Words and clauses are often connected, not by a single con- 
junction, but by two conjunctions, or by a conjunction and an 
adverb, corresponding to each other; as, " Give me neither poverty 
nor riches." 

13* 



150 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR — SYNTAX. 



4. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions that 
have a corresponding conjunction or adverb : 
Neither, — 
Either, — 
Whether, — 



Though, 

If, 

Both, 
Not only, 



As, 



So, 



■ nor ; as, It is neither cold nor hot. 

■ or ; as, Either she or her sister must go. 
or; as, Whether he will do it or not, I cannot 

say. 

• yet ; as, Though, he was rich, yet for our 
sakes he became poor. 

• then ; as, If he speaks true, then you speak 
false. 

■ and ; as, I am debtor both to the Greeks, and 
to the Barbarians. 

• but also ; as, Not only his character, but also 
his life was at stake. 

as, My land is as good as yours (equality). 
- so; as, As the stars, so shall thy seed be (equality 

or proportion). 
as ; He is not so wise as his brother (denying 

equality). 
that; I am so weak that I cannot walk (conse- 
quence). 



• as; 



Much difference of opinion exists respecting the true nature of the word 
as, many grammarians of high authority calling it in certain circumstances 
a relative pronoun, equivalent to who or which. Others again prefer to 
consider it in such sentences a conjunction, and explain the construction 
by ellipsis. Although it is difficult in all cases to supply an ellipsis which 
shall be perfectly satisfactory, yet the difficulty seems less than that of 
considering as a pronoun. Thus, "Shun such as (those are, who) are 
vicious," "To as many as (are those, who) received him." The ellipsis is 
often that of the indefinite it. Thus, "A s (it) concerns me," "As (it) re- 
gards me," "As (it) appears," "As (it) follows." The usage is not entirely 
uniform in regard to the verb "follows." In giving a specification of par- 
ticulars, almost all good writers use the phrase "as follows." Still, there 
are some writers of high authority, who make the verb plural when the 
antecedent word is so; as, "The words were as follow." "As follows," 
however, is far more common, the indefinite "it" being understood. 

Sometimes, as is preceded by such, or some other definite antecedent, 
limiting the assertion to a part of a certain class of objects, and requiring 
the same definite limitation in the succeeding clause. In this case, it is 
not proper to supply the ellipsis by the indefinite "it," but by a word cor- 
responding to the one used in the correlative clause. Hence, if the ante- 



RULE XV. — THE CONJUNCTION. 151 

cedent is plural, the word to be supplied is plural, and the verb must be so 
too. Thus, " Such (men) as (those who) follow a profession," " Such of 
his censures only, as (those which) concern my friend." 

5. The comparative degree, and the words other, rather, and 
else, are generally followed by than; as, " John is greater than 
James." 

6. After than there is almost always an ellipsis of several words. 
In supplying these words, the latter clause must be made analo- 
gous to the preceding ; as, " John has written more than James 
(has written) y 

The only exception to this rule is in the use of the relative who, which 
sometimes becomes whom, where the corresponding clause requires the 
nominative; as, ''Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." If the per- 
sonal pronoun be substituted for the relative, it would be in the nominative 
case; thus, " None sat higher than lie (did)." The construction of the rela- 
tive in such cases seems to be a well established usage of the language. 
In such a sentence I would not call the conjunction a preposition, but in 
parsing the relative I would say, that " than is sometimes followed by 
WHOM, even when the corresponding clause requires the nominative." 

7. Conjunctions generally connect the same moods and tenses 
of verbs; as, "He reads and writes well ; " and the same cases of 
nouns and pronouns ; as, " I saw him and her." 

8. When conjunctions connect verbs in the same mood and 
tense, the nominative is generally not repeated; but when the 

"verbs connected are in different moods or tenses, the nominative 
should be repeated before each; as, "He may return, but he will 
not remain." The nominative is also often repeated when, in 
the progress of the sentence, we pass from the positive form of 
expression to the negative, or the contrary, or when a contrast is 
made; "Though I admire him greatly, yet I do not love him" 
(from pos. to neg.), "Though he was rich, yet he became poor" 
(contrast), etc. 

Model for Parsing. 

"James and John are brothers." "And" is a conjunction, 
connecting "James" and "John," according to Rule XV. 
(Quote.) 

" It is neither cold nor hot." " Neither " and " nor " are cor- 
responding conjunctions, connecting "cold" and "hot," accord- 
ing to Rule XV., Note 4. 



152 ENGLISH GKAMMAK — SYNTAX. 

Exereises. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences, correcting and supplying 
ellipses, where necessary : 

Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 

Study universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope. 

Practise humility, and reject everything in dress, carriage, or 
conversation, which has any appearance of pride. 

If ye do these things, ye shall never fail. 

It is neither cold or hot. 

Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich. 

Though he slay me, so will I trust him. 

So as thy days, so shall thy strength be. 

He was as angry as he could not speak. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 

He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 

Anger glances into the heart of a wise man, but will rest only 
in the bosom of fools. 

To profess regard, and acting differently, mark a base mind. 

Eank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce 
virtue. 

She was proud, though now humble. 

He is not rich, but is respectable. 

The story was not believed we were defeated. 

Wood is not durable iron. 

One hour is long another. 

He ate so much he became sick. 

As he treated others, he expected to be treated by them. 

Though he was severe with the vicious, he was lenient to 

those who tried to do right. 

It was done better by him than me. 

Washington was a better man than Napoleon . 

The teacher ought to know more than his scholars . 

I was your enemy, but now am your friend. 

He is his friend to-day, but may be his enemy to-morrow. 

Unless it blossoms in the spring, the tree will not bear fruit in 
autumn. 

The days in December, you know, are at their shortest, and 
therefore you must rise by the dawn, if you would have much 
daylight. 



RULE XVI. — INTERJECTIONS. 153 

RULE XVI.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection has no dependence upon 
other words. 

NOTES. 

1. In parsing an interjection, all that is necessary is to tell 
what part of speech it is. 

2. Sometimes interjections have the appearance of governing 
the objective case ; as, " Ah me ! " But such sentences are always 
elliptical, some verb or preposition being understood ; as, " Ah ! 
(pity) me." 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 
To be Corrected and. Parsed. 



1. John writes pretty. 2. I shall never do so no more. 3. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. 4. Was you present 
at the last meeting ? 5. He dare not act otherwise than he does. 
6. Him whom they seek is in the house. 7. George or I is the 
person. 8. They or he is much to be blamed. 9. The troop 
consist of fifty men. 10. Those set of books was a valuable 
present. 

II. 

1. A pillar sixty foot high. 2. His conduct evinced the 
most extreme vanity. 3. These trees are remarkable tall. 4. 
He acted bolder than was expected. 5. This is he who I gave 
the book to. 6. From whence came they? 7. Who do you 
lodge with now? 8. The Select Council was not unanimous in 
its opinion. 9. If he be sincere, I am satisfied. 10. Her father 
and her were at church. 

III. 

1. The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. 2. 
It is no more but his due. 3. Flatterers flatter as long, and no 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

longer than they have expectations of gain. 4. John told the 
same story which you did. 5. This is the largest tree which I 
have ever seen. 6. Let he and I read the next chapter. 7. Those 
sort of dealings are unjust. 8. David the son of Jesse was the 
youngest of his brothers. 9. You was very kind to him, he said. 
10. Well, said I, what does thou think of him now? 

IV. 

1. James is one of those boys that was kept in at school, for 
bad behavior. 2. Thou, James, did deny the deed. 3. Neither 
good nor evil come of themselves. 4. We need not to be afraid. 
5. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. 6. You 
should have drank goat's milk. 7. It was him who spoke first. 
8. Is it me that you mean ? 9. Who did you buy your grammar 
from? 10. If one takes a wrong method at first setting out, it 
will lead them astray. 

V. 

1. Neither man nor woman were present. 2. I am more taller 
than you. 3. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 4. After 
the most strictest notions of the sect, I lived a hermit. 5. There 
was more sophists than one. 6. If a person have lived twenty or 
thirty years, he should have some experience. 7. If this were his 
meaning, the prediction has failed. 8. Fidelity and truth is the 
foundation of all justice. 9. When they had went out, they saw 
no man there save the farmer only. 10. Strive not with a man 
without cause, if he have done thee no harm. 

VI. 

1. I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 2. The girl's 
book it is torn in pieces. 3. It is not me who he is in love with. 
4. He which commands himself, commands the whole world. 5. 
Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 6. The peoples happiness 
is the statesmans honor. 7. Changed to a worser shape thou canst 
not be. 8. I have drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. 9. 
He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. 10. Solid peace 
and contentment consists neither in beauty or riches, but in the 
favor of God, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES, 155 

VII. 

1. After who is the King of Israel come out? 2. The recip- 
rocations of love and friendship between he and I have been many 
and sincere. 3. Abuse of mercies ripen us for judgment. 4. 
Peter and John is not at school to-day. 5. Three of them was 
taken into custody. 6. To study diligently, and behave genteelly, 
is commendable. 7. The enemies who we have most to fear are 
those of our own hearts. 8. Suppose life never so long, fresh 
accessions of knowledge may still be made. 9. Surely thou who 
reads so much in the Bible, can tell me what became of Elijah. 
10. Neither the master nor the scholars is reading. 

VIII. 

1. Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. 2. I love no 
interests but that of truth and virtue. 3. Every imagination of 
the thoughts of the heart are evil continually. 4. No one can be 
blamed for taking due care of their health. 5. The product of the 
silver mines of Mexico aud Peru far exceed those of Europe 
and Asia. 6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. 7. 
He that is diligent you should commend. 8. There was an earth- 
quake which made the earth to tremble. 9. He was very much 
made on at school. 10. Though he were a son, yet learned he 
obedience by the things which he suffered. 

IX. 

1. If he is alone tell him the news ; but if there is anybody with 
him, do not tell him. 2. They ride faster than us. 3. Though 
the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of attention. 4. If he 
does but approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. 5. 
Was it him who came last? Yes, it was him. 6. I shall take 
care that no one shall suffer no injury. 7. Every man should act 
suitable to his character and station in life. 8. His arguments 
were exceeding clear. 9. I only spoke three words on that sub- 
ject. 10. The ant and the bee sets a good example before dron- 
ish boys. 

X. 

1. Evil communications corrupts good manners. 2. Hannibal 
was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. 3. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously 
situated for gaining of wisdom. 4. These are the rules of gram- 
mar, by the observing which you may avoid mistakes. 5. Take 
care, little children, lest the dog bites you. 6. My exercises are 
not well wrote, I do not hold my pen well. 7. Grammar teaches 
us to speak proper. 8. She accused her companion for having 
betrayed her. 9. I will not dissent with her. 10. Who shall I 
give it to ? 

XI. 

1. Who are you looking for ? 2. That is a book which I am 
much pleased with. 3. That picture of the emperor's is a very 
exact resemblance of him. 4. Everything that we here enjoy, 
change, decay, and come to an end. 5. It is not him they blame 
so much. 6. No people has more faults than they that pretend 
to have none. 7. The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote 
with blood. 8. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I need not explain 
it. 9. She taught him and I to read. 10. The greater a bad man's 
accomplishments are, the more dangerous he is to society, and 
the more less fit for a companion. 

XII. 

1. Each has their own faults, and every one should endeavor 
to correct their own. 2. Let your promises be few, and such that 
you can perform. 3. His being at enmity with Caesar and Antony 
were the cause of perpetual discord. 4. Their being forced to 
their books in an age at enmity with all restraint have been the 
reason why many have hated books all their lives. 5. Do not 
despise the state of the poor, lest it becomes your own condition. 
6. It was his duty to have interposed his authority in an affair of 
so much importance. 7. He spent his whole life in the doing good. 
8. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and conversed with 
the erectors of this occasional club, were invited to pass an evening 
when they thought fit. 9. The winter has not been so severe as 
we expected it to have been. 10. A lampoon, or a satire, does not 
carry in them robbery or murder. 

XIII. 

1. She and you were not mistaken in her conjectures. 2. My 
sister and I, as well as my brother, are employed in their respec- 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 157 

tive occupations. 3. He repents him of that indiscreet action. 
4. It was me, and not him, that wrote it. 5. Art thou him ? 6. 
I am a man who approves of wholesome discipline, and who 
recommend it to others ; but I am not a person who promotes se- 
verity, or who object to mild and generous treatment. 7. Pros- 
perity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much obstructs the 
knowledge of ourselves. 8. To do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, it is our duty. 9. This grammar was purchased 
at Ogle's the bookseller's. 10. The council was not unanimous. 

XIV. 

1. Who spilt the ink upon the table ? Him. 2. Who lost this 
book ? Me. 3. Whose pen is this ? Johns. 4. There is, in fact, no 
impersonal verbs in any language. 5. A man may see a meta- 
phor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a descrip- 
tion. 6. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the fire, 
but she opened to me the reason of her visit. 7. A prudent wife, 
she shall be blessed. 8. The house you speak of, it cost me five 
thousand dollars. 9. Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but 
the judge's opinion also favored his cause. 10. The vicious in- 
clined dog was shot before he had bit any of the children. 

XV. 

1. This palace has been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. 2. They 
did not every man cast away the abomination of their eyes. 3. 
Whose works are these ? They are Cicero, the most eloquent of 
men's. 4. The mighty rivals are now at length agreed. 5. The 
time of William making the experiment at length arrived. 6. 
If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall presently be 
sensible of the melody suffering. 7. This picture of the king's 
does not much resemble him. 8. These pictures of the king were 
sent to him from Italy. 9. I offer observations, that a long and 
checkered pilgrimage have enabled me to make on man. 10. 
Clelia is a vain woman, who, if we do not flatter, she will be dis- 
gusted, 

XVI. 

1. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves on so pop- 
ular a subject. 2. He acted conformable with his instructions, and 
14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR — SYNTAX. 

cannot be censured justly. 3. No person could speak stronger, 
nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of true 
religious toleration. 4. They were studious to ingratiate with 
those who it was dishonorable to favor. 5. The house framed a 
remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the king's 
prerogative. 6. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great. 
7. Many would exchange gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, 
for that more quiet and humbler station, which thou art now dis- 
satisfied with. 8. High hopes and florid views is a great enemy 
to tranquillity. 9. Many persons will not believe but what they 
are free from prejudices. 10. I will lie me down in peace, and 
take my rest. 

XVII. 

1. This word I have only found in Spenser. 2. The king being 
apprised of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 3. A too 
great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. 4. James 
was resolved to not indulge himself in such a cruel amusement. 
5. They admired the countryman's, as they called him, candor 
and uprightness. 6. The pleasure or pain of one passion differ 
from those of another. 7. The court of Spain, who gave the 
order, were not aware of the consequences. 8. There was much 
spoke and wrote on each side of the question ; but I have chose to 
suspend my decision. 9. Religion raises men above themselves ; 
irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down 
to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth ; this opens for them 
a prospect to the skies. 10. Temperance and exercise, howsoever 
little they may be regarded, they are the best means of preserving 
health. 

XVIII. 

1. To despise others on account of their poverty, or to value 
ourselves for our wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. 2. As 
his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few per- 
sons pitied him. 3. They were judged every man according to 
their works. 4. Riches is the bane of human happiness. 5. 
When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time in doubt whether 
it could be him or not. 6. The company was very numerous. 
7. Robert Burns' poetry was remarkable. 8. Chambers' Cyclo- 
paedia is a valuable work. 9. They were obliged to contribute 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 159 

more than us. 10. The Barons had little more to rely on, besides 
the power of their families. 

XIX. 

1. The sewers must be kept so clear, as the water may run away. 
2. Such among us who follow that business should abandon it at 
once. 3. No body is so sanguine to hope for it. 4. She behaved 
unkinder than I expected. 5. Agreeable to your request I send 
this letter. 6. She is exceeding fair. 7. Thomas is not as docile 
as his sister. 8. There was no other book but this. 9. He died 
by a fever. 10. My sister and I waited till they were called. 



XX. 

1. The friends and amusements which he preferred corrupted 
his morals. 2. Henry, though at first he showed an unwilling- 
ness, yet afterwards he granted her request. 3. Him and her live 
very happily together. 4. She invited Jane and I to see her new 
dress. 5. She uttered such cries that pierced the heart of every 
one who heard them. 6. Maria is not as clever as her sister Ann. 

7. Though he promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him. 

8. The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, but he 
opened to them the gate of paradise. 9. It rendered the progress 
very slow of the new invention. 10. This book is Thomas', that 
is James'. 

XXI. 

l.Who, who has the judgment of a man, would have drawn such 
an inference ? 2. George was the most diligent scholar whom I 
ever knew. 3. I have observed some children to use deceit. 4. 
He durst not to displease his master. 5. The hopeless delinquents 
might, each in their turn, adopt the expostulatory language of 
Job. 6. Several of our English words, some centuries ago, had 
different meanings to those they have now. 7. With this booty, 
he made off to a distant part of the country, where he had reason 
to believe that neither he nor his master were known. 8. I live 
at Philadelphia. 9. Which of the two masters, says Seneca, 
shall we most esteem ? He who strives to correct his scholars by 
prudent advice and motives of honor, or another who will lash them 
severely for not repeating their lessons as they ought I 10. But 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR SYNTAX. 

she always behaved with great severity to her maids ; and if any 
one of them were negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their 
conduct, nothing would serve her but burying the poor girl alive. 

XXII. 

1. They that honor me, I will honor. 2. Bring Charles' book 
with you, when you come. 3. The first Christians of the gentile 
world made a simple and entire transition from a state as bad, 
if not worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity of 
the New Testament. 4. The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty 
as was expected. 5. Milton seems to have been well acquainted 
with his own genius, and to know what it was that nature had be- 
stowed upon him more bountifully than upon others. 6. He only 
promised me a loan of the book for two days. 7. I once in- 
tended to have written a poem. 8. A very slow child will often 
be found to get lessons by heart as soon as, nay, sometimes sooner, 
than one who is ten times as intelligent. 9. It is then from a 
cultivation of the perceptive faculties, that we only can attain 
those powers of conception which are essential to taste. 10. 
Every one, man or woman, thinks their own opinion is right ; 
if they thought it wrong, it would no longer be their opinion ; 
but there is a wide difference between regarding ourselves infalli- 
ble, and being firmly convinced of the truth of our creed. 

XXIII. 

1. Conversation is the business, and let every one that please 
add their opinion freely. 2. There are many more shining qual- 
ities in the mind of man, but there are none so useful, as discre- 
tion. 3. Frequent commission of crimes harden the heart. 4. In 
our earliest youth the contagion of manners are observable. 5. 
The pyramids of Egypt has stood more than three thousand years. 
6. A few pangs of conscience now and then interrupts his pleasure, 
and whispers to him that he once had better thoughts. 7. There 
is more cultivators of the earth than of their own hearts. 8. 
Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 9. 
Not one of those whom thou sees clothed in purple are happy. 
10. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden medi- 
ocrity. 



II. ANALYSIS. 
General Observations. 

1. The word Analysis is from the Greek avakvaiq, dissolution, 
taking apart, or separation of a compound into its constituent 
parts. 

2. Analysis, in grammar, treats of the separation of a sentence 
into the parts which compose it. * 

3. The Analysis of sentences is a matter of logic rather than 
of grammar. Some attention to Analysis, however, even in ele- 
mentary studies, is important. By means of it, the syntactical 
relations of words are more clearly apprehended. It helps also 
to cultivate the logical faculty, which is at the basis of all sound 
knowledge. 

4. The study of Analysis may precede that of Syntax, or may 
follow it. There are advantages and disadvantages in either 
course. The subject is presented in a separate chapter, so that 
the teacher may follow his judgment in the matter. 

5. The subject is divided into three heads, 1. Parts of a Sentence, 
2. Kinds of Sentences, 3. Explanation of Terms. 



I. PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense; as, "Man is mortal." 

Note. — A sentence may consist of a single word; as, " Depart." 

The Essential Parts of a sentence are two, The Sub- 
ject and the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The Predicate is what is affirmed or asserted of the 
Subject. 

In the sentence, "Man lives," man is the Subject, lives is the Predicate. 
14* L 161 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Subject, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

In the sentence, "Depart" the Subject is thou or you understood. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Predicate, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

A Subject and a Predicate, together, make a sentence. 

I. THE SUBJECT. 

Distinction of Grammatical Subject and Logical 

Subject. 

The Grammatical Subject is simply the noun or 
pronoun which is nominative to the verb. 

Examples. — "Man lives." " The good old man still lives." "He lives." 
"He, the eloquent and able defender of Christianity, still lives." In the 
first two examples, the Grammatical Subject is man; in the other two, it 
is he. 

The Logical Subject is not simply the noun or pro- 
noun which is nominative to the verb, but includes also 
all the attendant words which modify in any way the 
meaning of the nominative. 

In the second example above, the Logical Subject is The good old man ; 
in the fourth example, it is He, the eloquent and able defender of Christi- 
anity, 

The Logical Subject, then, includes all the words 
which, taken together, form the subject of discourse. 
The Logical Subject is the one treated of in Analysis. 

In the remainder of this chapter, it will be understood that the term 
Subject, unless otherwise specified, means the Logical Subject. 

The Subject is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, and 
Compound. 



ANALYSIS. 163 

I. SIMPLE SUBJECTS. 

A Simple Subject is a single noun or pronoun, with 
no modifying word or words, and nominative to the verb. 

The Logical Subject and the Grammatical Subject are here the 
same. 

Examples. — " James wrote the letter." " He wrote the letter." " Henry 
Clay rose in his place, and addressed the House." "Rivers flow into the 
sea." 

II. COMPLEX SUBJECTS. 

A Complex Subject is one in which the noun or pro- 
noun nominative to the verb is accompanied by some 
other word or words which in some way limit or modify 
its meaning. 

Example. — " The miserable man, overwhelmed with debt, and convicted of 
crime, lived a most unhappy life." Here the subject is "man" with all 
the other accompanying words in italics. These accompanying words 
modify or limit the word " man." They all, taken together, form the sub^ 
ject of which the affirmation is made. 

Adjuncts to the Subject. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make a 
Subject complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Subject are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in meaning, but 
not containing a predicate-verb, and not making by themselves 
complete sense. 

A Clause is a number of words, connected in meaning, and 
containing a verb with its subject, and so making by themselves 
complete sense, but not independent, being used to modify or 
qualify some other word. 

The following are examples of each of these three kinds of 
adjuncts. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Single Words. — " The good man has departed." Here "the" and 
"good" are single words, modifying or qualifying the subject "man.** 

2. Phrases. — " The good man, in the midst of his usefulness, has de- 
parted." Here the words, " in the midst of his usefulness," form a modi- 
fying or qualifying phrase. 

3. Clauses. — " The good man, who had gained great renown, departed." 
Here the words, " who had gained great renown," form a modifying or 
qualifying clause. 

Ways in which Adjuncts modify the Subject. 
The Subject is modified by Adjuncts, as follows: 

1. By an article; as, "The man has arrived." 

2. By an adjective; as, "Good men are few." 

3. By a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, " James Brown, 
artist, is dead " ; " Elizabeth herself has arrived." 

4. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; as, " Winter's frosts 
have disappeared" ; " Your time has come." 

5. By a preposition and its object; as, "Frosts of winter dis- 
appear." 

6. By a participle ; as, " Brothers divided are a sad sight." 

7. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, " The time to study should 
not be lost." 

8. By a clause ; as, " Lessons which are easy are apt to be 
neglected " ; " The fear that he might be detected kept him from 
committing the crime." 

Model. — "A large increase of wealth might make him care- 
less." 

In this sentence, 

1. The simple subject is increase. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the article a, the adjective 
large, and the preposition and its object, of wealth. 

3. The whole complex subject is a large increase of wealth. 

Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple subject, (2.) The adjuncts or 
modifiers of the simple subject, (3.) The w r hole complex subject, 
in each of the following sentences : 

1. The thorough knowledge of Scripture helps us in under- 
standing all other truth. 



ANALYSIS. 165 

2. An anxious desire to do right was manifest in all his con- 
duct. 

3. James's impetuous disposition, which ought to have been 
checked, was allowed to have free sway. 

4. The great apostle Paul himself was subject to calumny. 

5. A selfish desire for wealth, unchecked, is apt to pervert the 
moral principles. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Subject are 
modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the Subject may themselves be modified by other 
words, as follows : 

1. A Noun used as an adjunct of the subject may be modified 
in all respects as the principal noun. 

Example. — " James Applegate, the old man that you spoke of, has left 
for parts unknown." 

2. An Adjective used as an adjunct of the subject may be modi- 
fied, (1.) By a preposition and its object, (2.) By an infinitive, (3.) 
By an adverb. 

Examples. — " A man merciful in disposition" "A man quick to resent 
injury." "A very abundant harvest." 

Note. — An adverb used to modify an adjunct adjective may itself be 
modified, (1.) By another adverb, (2.) By a preposition and its object. Ex- 
amples : " Host thoroughly wicked " ; " An essay replete, agreeably to ex- 
pectation, with varied knowledge." 

3. A Participle, or an Infinitive, used as an adjunct of the 
subject, may be modified, (1.) By an object, (2.) By a preposition 
with its object, (3.) By an infinitive, (4.) By an adverb. 

Examples of the Participle. — " The man, having written the letter, mailed 
it." " The man, living in ease, became indolent." " The man, wishing to 
sleep, retired to his room." " The man, thoroughly frightened, fled from 
the house." 

Examples of the Infinitive. — "A desire to gain honor." "A desire to 
live in ease." "A resolution to cease to do evil." "A resolution to cease 
immediately from evil courses." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

NOTES. 

1. A Participle, or an Infinitive, with its adjuncts, may be 
used as a subject ; as, " Learning Latin thoroughly requires much 
time." "To learn Latin thoroughly requires much time." 

2. A Participle, when used as a subject, may be modified by a 
noun, or an adjective, having no other grammatical dependence; 
as, " Being a hero requires courage," " Being heroic requires 
courage." 

3. An Infinitive, when used as a subject, may be modified by 
a noun, an adjective, or a participle, having no other grammatical 
dependence ; as, " To be a hero requires courage," " To be heroic 
requires courage," "To live constantly fearing death requires 
patience." 

4. The Participle or Infinitive, in these cases, must belong to 
an intransitive verb, or to the passive voice. See Syntax, p. 126. 

Model. — " The desire of the aspiring boy to receive in his 
youth a suitable education was natural." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple subject is desire ("desire was natural"). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this subject are the following: 

(a) The article the (" the desire "). 

(b) The preposition and its object, of boy, (" the desire of 

boy.") 

(c) The infinitive to receive ("The desire of boy to receive"). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, as 
follows : 

(a) The adjunct of boy is modified by the article the and the 

adjective aspiring ("of the aspiring boy"). 

(b) The adjunct to receive is modified by the object education 

and the preposition and its object, in youth ("to re- 
ceive in youth education "). 

(c) The adjunct in youth is modified by the possessive pro- 

noun his ("in his youth"). 

(d) The adjunct education is modified by the article a and 

the adjective suitable (" a suitable education "). 

4. The whole complex subject is, The desire of the aspiring boy 
to receive in his youth a suitable education. 



ANALYSIS. 167 

Exercises. —Give, (1.) The simple subject, (2.) Its adjuncts or 
modifiers, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole com- 
plex subject, in each of the following sentences : 

1. The earnest conviction of Christopher Columbus that he 
would reach land by sailing westward led to the discovery of the 
new world. 

2. Paul, the apostle of the gentiles, rejoicing steadfastly in the 
hope set before him, suffered martyrdom. 

3. The birds with their bright feathers, sailing through the air, 
gladden the heart of man. 

4. Careless of fame, the youth pursues the even tenor of his way. 

5. In the centre was a vast hollow square filled with innumer- 
able flowering plants. 

Note. — The Subject is often transposed and placed after the predicate, 
as in this last example. 

III. COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two 
or more subjects, whether simple or complex, connected 
by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. Sometimes the separate subjects which form the Compound 
subject may make separate sentences, by repeating the predicate. 

Example. — " Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." This may 
be separated into two sentences, thus : " Lakes are large bodies of water," 
" Oceans are large bodies of water." 

2. Sometimes the several subjects cannot be thus separated, 
because the predicate does not admit of it. 

Example. — "The Raritan river, the Delaware river, and the connecting 
canal, form a continuous line of inland navigation between New York and 
Philadelphia." Here the predicate is true of the compound subject as a 
whole, but not of any one of the single subjects taken by itself. 

3. This separation into distinct sentences may be made when- 
ever the predicate is true of each subject taken by itself, but 
cannot be made when the predicate is true of the different sub- 
jects only when taken together as a whole. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Each of the separate subjects which form a compound sub- 
ject may be complex, and as such may be modified by adjuncts 
in all the different ways already described under the head of 
Complex Subjects. It is not necessary to give separate examples. 

II. THE PREDICATE. 

Distinction of Grammatical Predicate and Logi- 
cal Predicate. 

The Grammatical Predicate is simply the finite verb 
to which the noun or pronoun forming the grammatical 
subject is nominative. 

Examples. — " The man lives'* " The man has at length reached home 
safely/' " Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul." The grammatical predicates 
here are the verbs lives, has reached, and was. 

The Logical Predicate is not simply the verb to 
which the noun or pronoun is nominative, but includes 
also all the attendant words which modify in any way the 
meaning of the verb. 

In the second example above, the Logical predicate is, has at length 
reached home safely ; in the third example it is, was the conqueror of Gaul. 

The Logical Predicate, then, includes all the words 
which, taken together, tell what is said or affirmed of the 
subject. 

The Logical Predicate is the one treated of in Analysis. 

The Predicate is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, 
and Compound. 

I. SIMPLE PREDICATES. 

A Simple Predicate is a single finite verb, having 
some noun or pronoun for its nominative. 

The Logical Predicate and the Grammatical Predicate here are 
the same. 

Examples.— " The sun has risen" "The illustrious general, who had 
been victorious in a hundred fights, was defeated." 



ANALYSIS. 169 

II. COMPLEX PREDICATES. 

A Complex Predicate is one in which the predicate 
verb is accompanied by some other word or words which 
in some way limit or modify its meaning. 

Example. — " The life of such a man will at length come to an end in the 
midst of shame and sorrow" Here the predicate is the verb " will come " 
with all the other accompanying words in italics. These accompanying 
words modify or limit the verb " will come." They all, taken together, 
form the affirmation which is made in regard to " the life of such a man." 

Adjuncts to the Predicate. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make a 
Predicate complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Predicate are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

The following are examples of each of these three kinds of 
adjuncts : 

1. Single Words. — "The old man went back slowly" Here "back" 
and "slowly" are single words modifying or qualifying the predicate 
" went." 

2. Phrases. — " The old man went to Ms home in great wrath." Here 
the phrases, "to his home," and "in great wrath," modify the predicate 
"went." 

3. Clauses. — " The man lived in the house which was upon the hill-side" 
Here the clause, " which was upon the hill-side/' is one of the modifiers of 
the predicate " lived." 

Ways in which Adjuncts modify the Predicate. 
The Predicate is modified by Adjuncts, as follows : 

1. By an adjective belonging to the subject-nominative; as, 
"Good men are few" The adjective in this case is called the 
adjective-predicate, and is parsed as belonging to the noun or 
pronoun which is nominative to the verb. 

2. By a participle belonging to the subject-nominative; as, 
" He sat watching" 

3. By a noun or pronoun in the nominative after the verb ; as, 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

' " The men have become drunkards" " It is I" The noun or 
pronoun in this case is called the nominative-predicate. 

Note 1. — The nominative-predicate after a verb is sometimes introduced 
by the conjunction as. "He was regarded as a scholar." 

Note 2. — A noun or pronoun can be nominative-predicate only after in- 
transitive verbs and after the passive voice of transitive verbs; as, " He 
was called a villain." 

Note 3. — A noun-predicate after an infinitive may be in the objective, 
if the word which it represents is in the objective; as, "We allowed them 
to become drunkards" 

4. By a noun or pronoun which is the object of the verb ; as, 
" We saw him" u We heard noises" 

Note. — An objective-predicate can occur only after a transitive verb in 
the active voice, or after an intransitive verb having the same meaning as 
the object; as, "He runs a race." 

5. By a preposition with its object ; as, " The man has gone 
to town." 

6. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, " He continued to move" 

7. By an adverb ; as, " He writes rapidly" 

8. By a clause ; as, " He asked that the time might be extended" 



oXKo 



Model. — " No man can truly say that he is without sin." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is can say. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the adverb truly, and the clause, 
that he is without sin. 

3. The whole complex predicate is, can truly say that he is with- 
out sin. 

Exercises.— Give, (1.) The simple predicate, (2.) The adjuncts 
or modifiers of the simple predicate, (3.) The whole complex 
predicate, in each of the following sentences : 

1. Wealth begets desire for wealth. 

2. Men of learning have often been unwise. 

3. The lark rises toward heaven singing. 



ANALYSIS. 171 

4. Fishes glide rapidly through water by swimming. 

5. Christopher Columbus believed after study that the earth 
was round. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Predicate are 
modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the predicate may themselves be modified by other 
words. 

The several parts of speech, when used as adjuncts to the pre- 
dicate, are modified in the same manner as the same words are 
when used as adjuncts to the subject. It is not necessary, there- 
fore, to enumerate them in detail. 



o^o 



Model. — "The wrestler found at length a young man willing 
to compete with him." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is the verb found (" wrestler found"). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this predicate are the follow- 
ing: 

(a) The noun man, object of the verb ("wrestler found 

man"). 

(b) The preposition and its object, at length ("The wrestler 

found at length man"). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, as 
follows : 

(a) The adjunct man is modified by the article a and the ad- 

jectives young and willing ("a young man willing"). 

(b) The adjunct willing is itself modified by the infinitive to 

compete, and that again by the preposition and object 
with him, ("willing to compete with him"). 

4. The whole complex predicate is, found at length a young 
man willing to compete with him. 

Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple predicate, (2.) Its adjuncts 
or modifiers, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole 
complex predicate, in each of the following sentences : 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value 
the whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 
. 2. The distance from the earth to the sun is, in round numbers, 
one hundred millions of miles. 

3. The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of immense 
importance, presupposing in the mind to which they are applied 
an active co-operation. 

4. The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehement 
reaction against the prevailing tendencies of an exceedingly 
corrupt civilization. 

5. The genius for disorder, which shows itself in some young 
persons, is not a hopeful sign for their future comfort in life. 

Review Exercises. — Give, (1.) The simple subject, (2.) Its 
adjuncts, (3.) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4.) The whole com- 
plex subject, in each of the foregoing sentences. 

III. COMPOUND PREDICATES. 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two 
or more predicates, whether simple or complex, united 
by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. The several predicates which form the compound predicate 
may generally make separate sentences, by repeating the subject. 

Examples. — " The Atlantic ocean is the large body of water lying between 
Europe and America, and is traversed continually by steamers and sailing 
vessels." This may be separated into two distinct sentences, thus: u The 
Atlantic ocean is the large body of water lying between Europe and 
America." " The Atlantic ocean is traversed continually by steamers and 
sailing vessels." 

" Drunkenness enslaves and debases a man." This may be separated 
into the two sentences, " Drunkenness enslaves a man," " Drunkenness de- 
bases a man." 

2. Each of the separate predicates which form a compound 
predicate may be complex, and as such may be modified by ad- 
juncts, in all the different ways described under the head of Com- 
plex Predicates. It is not necessary to give separate examples. 



ANALYSIS. 173 

II. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

Two Ways of Classifying Sentences. 

Sentences are divided into classes or kinds, first in 
reference to their use, secondly in reference to their 
structure. 

I. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three 
kinds, namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Impera- 
tive. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used simply to 
declare or deny. 

A Declarative sentence must always contain a verb in the Indicative or 
the Potential mood; as, "He has not failed," "A life spent in doing good 
could not be a failure." 

Note. — In the preceding part of this chapter, explaining the Parts of a 
Sentence, all the examples given have been Declarative Sentences. For 
the purposes of illustration, they are more convenient than examples of 
the other kinds of sentences. 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask a 
question. 

An Interrogative sentence must always contain a verb in the Indicative 
or the Potential mood; as, "Has he failed?" " Could a life spent in doing 
good be a failure ? " 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to command, 
exhort, entreat, or permit. 

An Imperative sentence must always contain a verb in the Imperative 
mood ; as, " Write the copy according to your directions," " Father, forgive 
us," " Go, if you desire it." 

II. Sentences, as to their structure, are divided into 
three kinds, Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

This second division of sentences requires a more distinct con- 
sideration. 
15* 



174 ENGLISH CJUAMMAR. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate. 

The subject and the predicate may have any kind and degree 
of complexity, except that arising from the introduction of a 
clause, and yet the sentence be simple. 

"Tho Delaware, the Raritan, and tho connecting canal form a continuous 
lino of navigation." This is a simple sentence, because, although three 
things arc named, they constitute but one inseparable subject. The propo- 
sition would not be true, If made of any one of them separately. 

"Lakes and oceans arc large bodies of water." This is not simple, be- 
cause it may be resolved into the two sentences, "Lakes are largo bodies 
of water/' *' Oceans are large bodies of water." 

"A canoo which is made of bark is easily broken." This is not simple, 
because the subject is modified by a clause. The sentence thus has two 
predicates, is made, and if broken. 

"The man learned that the canoo was made of bark." This is not 
simple, because the predicate is modified by a clause. Tho sentence thus 
has two predicates, learned, and teas made. 

" The foolish young man, in the flush of a momentary excitement, rush- 
ing into the surging stream, at the time of high water, in a frail canoe 
made of bark, was rapidly whirled by the impetuosity of tho descending 
current into the yawning abyss below." Here, both tho subject and the 
predicate are very complex, yet tho sentenco is simple. It has but one 
subject and ono predicate. 

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains a simple 
sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its 
subject or its predicate. 

"A life which is spent in doing good cannot be a failure." This is a 
OOmplex sentence, because the subject is modified by the clause, ichich it 
tptnt in doiiuj yood. Tho sontenee thus has two predicates. 

u lie was at the station when the train arrived." This is complex, be- 
cause the predicate is modified by the clause, when the train arrived. The 
sentence thus has two predicates. 






ANALYSIS. 175 

III. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or 
more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by 
one or more conjunctions. 

" Ho left home in good season, and was at the station when the train 
arrived." This is a compound sentence, containing the simple sentence, 
He left home in good season, and the complex sentence, [He] was at the station 
when the train arrived, the two being connected by the conjunction and. 

The sentences which compose a Compound Sentence are called 
its Members. 



III. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

The terms Phrase, Clause, and Member frequently 
occur in speaking of Sentences. These terms have been 
already defined, but some additional illustration seems 
desirable. 

I. PHRASES. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a predicate- verb, and not making 
by themselves complete sense. 

The principal Phrases are the following: 

1. The Appositional Phrase; as, "June, the month of roses, has come at 
length." 

2. The Prepositional Phrase; as, "The cause of all this misery was bad 
temper/' 

3. The Adjective Phrase; as, " Youth, full of expectation, is ever san- 
guine." 

4. The Participial Phrase; as, "Living on vegetables, he was not strong." 

5. The Infinitive Phrase; as, " He determined to live on vegetables only." 

6. The Subject Phrase. This is where a Participial Phrase or an Infinitive 
Phrase is used as the subject to the verb ; as, " Living on vegetables only is 
not conducive to strength," "To live on vegetables only is not conducive to 
strength." 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The Absolute Phrase ; as, " The king being dead, his oldest son suc- 
ceeds to the throne." 

8. The Independent Phrase. This includes all mere exclamations, and 
all words addressed to persons or things, and not grammatically dependent 
upon the other parts of the sentence ; as, " Out upon the villain ! he deserves 
the halter," "Detestable villain, you deserve the halter." These exclama- 
tions and addresses often consist of a single word ; as " Villain, leave the 
house." 

II. CLAUSES. 

A Clause is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, and containing a verb with its subject, and so making 
< by themselves complete sense, but not independent, being 
used to modify some other word. 

The principal Clauses are the following : 

1. The Relative Clause ; as, " The man who is faithful to duty is to be 
honored." 

2. The Appositional Clause ; as, " The maxim, Put not off till to-morrow 
what can be done to-day, has much wisdom." 

3. The Subject Clause; as, " That life is uncertain is known to all." 

4. The Object Clause; as, "They knew that the man was a villain." 

5. The Adverbial Clause ; as, " He remained at the station until the train 
left." 

6. The Conjunctional Clause ; as, " He will meet you at the station, if 
you come in time." 

III. MEMBERS. 

A Member is a sentence, complete and independent 
in itself, and not used to modify any word or clause, yet 
united by a conjunction with some other sentence to form 
a compound sentence. 

The difference between Members and Clauses is this : Members 
are parts of compound sentences; Clauses, of complex sentences. 
A Member of a sentence can stand alone as an independent 
sentence ; a Clause, though containing a subject and predicate, is 
yet always dependent upon something outside of itself. 



ANALYSIS. 177 

" The sun, when it had risen, scorched the grass." " When it had risen " 
cannot stand alone. It is a clause, dependent upon " sun." 

" The sun had risen, and the grass was scorched." Here are two sen- 
tences, each complete and independent in itself, but both united to form 
a Compound sentence. These two sentences, taken separately, are called 
the Members of the Compound sentence. 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Model. — "The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest of 
all temporal encouragements to virtue ; and it is the mark of an 
abandoned spirit to have no regard to it." 

1. This is a declarative sentence, compound, and contains two 
members connected by the conjunction an d. 

2. The first member, " The esteem of wise and good men is the 
greatest of all temporal encouragements to virtue," is a simple 
sentence. 

3. The subject, "The esteem of wise and good men," is com- 
plex. Analyze it according to the model on p. 166. 

4. The predicate, "is the greatest of all encouragements to 
virtue," is complex. Analyze it according to the model on p. 171. 

5. The second member, " it is the mark of an abandoned spirit 
to have no regard to it," is a simple sentence. 

6. Its subject, " it," is simple. 

7. Its predicate, " is the mark of an abandoned spirit to have 
no regard to it," is complex. Analyze it according to model, 
p. 171. 

ModeL — " Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens 
above us, mere decorations of the night, or suns and centres of 
planetary systems ? " 

1. This is an interrogative sentence, compound, and contains 
two members connected by the conjunction or. 

2. The first member, " Are the stars, that gem the vault of the 
heavens above us, mere decorations of the night," is a complex 
sentence, containing a relative clause. 

3. The subject, " the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens 
above us," is complex. Analyze, first, the subject and predicate 

M 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the clause, and secondly, the whole complex subject, according 
to the models, pp. 166 and 171. 

4. The predicate, " are mere decorations of the night," is com- 
plex. Analyze it according to model, p. 171. 

5. The second member, supplying the ellipsis, " [are they] 
suns and centres of planetary systems," is a simple sentence. 
Analyze its subject and predicate according to the models already 
given. 

Exercises. — Analyze in the same manner the following sen- 
tences : 

1. The wind and rain are over; calm is the noon of day; the 
clouds are divided in heaven ; and over the green hill flies the 
inconstant sun. 

2. The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a perpetual 
smile ; and eyes, through which shines the light of other worlds, 
are often dimmed with tears. 

3. Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at 
hand, and always disinterested; having this advantage over oral 
instructors, that they are ready to repeat their lesson as often as 
we please. 

4. Can we imagine that God's highest gifts of intelligence, 
imagination, and moral power, were intended to provide only for 
animal wants? 

5. Do the voice of the wise, and the arm of the brave, and the 
blood of the patriot go for nothing, in the wild conflict that is 
desolating the earth? 

6. Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes 
from the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in 
turn ; causing us to recognize the truth, that there is something 
in humanity which deserves alike our love and reverence. 

7. Give me a larger eye, and I will reveal to you another rank 
of worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts you now 
behold. 

8. Macpherson, who has given us some highly original images, 
spoils half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. 

9. The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid, 
whose works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathemati- 
cians of modern times. 

10. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence; 
but be not blind to the defects of your country, because you were 
born in it. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse 
into sections by means of points, for the purpose of show- 
ing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of 
making: the sense more obvious. 

Capitals are used for a like purpose, and, therefore, 
they may with propriety be treated of at the same time 
with the Points. 

NOTES. 

1. For a fuller illustration of this subject, the student is referred to the 
author's work on Composition and Rhetoric. 

2. The word Punctuation is from the Latin punctum, a point. The points 
now used in writing were unknown to the ancients. Aristophanes, a gram- 
marian of Alexandria, about two and a half centuries before the Christian 
era, introduced some of the marks now used in punctuation. But the points 
did not come into common use until the time of Aldus Manutius, a learned 
printer of Venice, who reduced the matter to a system about the year 1500, 
and, by the extreme beauty and accuracy of his editions, gave it general 
currency. 

3. The word Capital is from the Latin caput, a head. The letters of the 
word or words forming the caput, heading, or title of a discourse, are called 
head-letters, or capitals. 

4. The capital letters were those first invented, and were in use many cen- 
turies before the invention of the small letters. The oldest manuscripts now 
in existence, some of which date as far back as the third century, are writ- 
ten entirely in capitals, and are likewise almost without points, and without 
spacing between the words. The small letters were first introduced about 
the seventh century; but, for some time after the introduction of the small 
letters, the capitals continued to be used much more than they are now. 

The principal grammatical points are five ; namely, 

1. The Comma, , 

2. The Semicolon, ; 

3. The Colon, : 

4. The Period, 

5. The Interrogation, ? 

179 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These points have various degrees of disjunctive force, in separating the 
parts of a sentence from each other. This force may be expressed briefly, 
as follows : The Period, except when used for an abbreviation, marks the 
greatest separation of all, the parts between which it is placed being thereby 
rendered grammatically entirely independent of each other; the Colon 
marks a separation somewhat less than that of the Period; the Semicolon, 
less than that of the Colon ; and the Comma, less than that of the Semicolon. 
The Interrogation, though usually counted as equivalent to a period, may 
be equivalent to a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period, according to 
circumstances. 

Besides the five points already named, several other 
characters are used for similar purposes. The most com- 
mon of these are the following : 

The Exclamation, ! 

The Dash, — 

The Parenthesis, ( ) 

The Bracket, [ ] 

The Quotation, " " 

The Apostrophe, 7 



I. THE COMMA. 

The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical 
divisions of discourse that require a point. 

The word Comma (Greek KOjXfxa, from kSkto), to cut) denotes something cut 
off, a section. It was used originally to denote, not the mark, but the por- 
tion of the sentence thus set off. The same is true of the words semicolon 
and colon. They meant originally portions of discourse, not, as now, the 
marks by which those portions are set off. Period, Interrogation, Paren- 
thesis, and some other like words, are used in both senses ; they mean por- 
tions of discourse, and also the marks by which those portions are set off. 

$ 

RULE I. 
Parenthetical Expressions. — Phrases and single 
words, used parenthetically, should be separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas. 



PUNCTUATION. 181 

Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not essentia] to the 
meaning and structure of the sentence in which they stand. Such words 
and phrases belong rather to some unexpressed thought that is in the mind, 
than to the thought actually expressed. Thus, " It is mind, after all, which 
does the work of the world." Here the phrase " after ail" does not belong 
to the verb " does." The author does not mean to say that mind does the 
work of the world, after doing everything else. In like manner, it does not 
modify any other part of the expressed sentence. On the contrary, it be- 
longs to some unexpressed thought, as though we were to say, " After all 
that can be claimed for other agents, we may still claim for the mind, that it 
does the work of the world." Sometimes the parenthetical word or phrase 
refers to what is expressed in the preceding sentence. Thus, " The danger 
was fully explained to him. His passions, however, prevented his seeing it." 
Parenthetical expressions, then, are such as are not necessary to the structure 
and meaning of the sentence in which they stand, if taken alone, but they 
are a part of the machinery, so to speak, by which the sentence is connected 
with some preceding sentence, or with some unexpressed sentence or thought 
existing in the mind of the writer. They are, in fact, of a conjunctional, 
rather than of an adverbial character. 

Some of the phrases in common use, which require to he sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following : 
in short, in truth, to be sure, 

in fact, as it were, to be brief, 

in fine, as it happens, after all, 

in reality, no doubt, you know, 

in brief, in a word, of course. 

Some of the single words used parenthetically, and often sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following: 
therefore, namely, moreover, 

then, consequently, surely, 

however, indeed, accordingly, 

perhaps, too, finally. 



Examples for Practice. 

1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real enjoyment. 

2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion. 

3. He knows very well come what may that the note will be 
paid. 

4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages. 

16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business in the 
manner described. 

6. There are in truth only two things to be considered namely 
his honesty and his ability. 

7. No nation in short is free from danger. 

8. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not 
to be found. 

9. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admis- 
sions. 

10. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no use 
in trying. 

11. The meeting after all was something of a failure. 

12. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your 
business. 

RULE II. 

Intermediate Expressions. — Clauses and expres- 
sions, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to 
come between some of the essential parts of the sen- 
tence, should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
by commas. 

Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate expressions from 
such as are properly restrictive in their character. An expression is re- 
strictive, when it limits the meaning of some particular word to some par- 
ticular sense. Thus, "The man who plants the field ought to reap the 
harvest." Here it is not " the man " merely, but " the man who plants the 
field," that is the subject of "ought." A separation of the relative and its 
adjuncts from " man," by means of commas, would destroy the sense. The 
clause, therefore, is restrictive. It limits the meaning to that particular man. 
But suppose I say, " Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, 
saw the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to meet 
it." Here, the expression, " who happened to be in the field at the time," 
is properly a relative clause not restrictive, and comes under Rule IV. ; and 
the expression, "in an ecstasy of delight," is properly intermediate, and 
comes under Rule II. The former breaks the continuity between the subject 
and the predicate ; the latter, between the two predicates. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are 
deserving of general attention. 



PUNCTUATION. 183 

2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small 
and inconsiderable portion of the universe. 

3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the 
incorrectness of his position. 

4. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict 
the horrors of the scene. 

5. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of sorrow. 

6. A man of great wealth may for want of education and refine- 
ment of manner be a mere cipher in society. 

7. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the 
highest Christian graces. 

8. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will 
bring in time large accumulations. 

RULE III. 

Dependent or Conditional Clauses. — A dependent 
or conditional clause should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by a comma or by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to the other for 
the completion of the sense. 

2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with if, unless, until, when, 
where, or other word expressive of condition, purpose, cause, time, place, 
and the like ; as, " If you would succeed in business, be honest and indus- 
trious." 

Examples for Practice. 

[Note. — In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, 
insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also 
those required by the preceding rules.] 

1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing 
your engagements. 

2. Every man if he would succeed in business must be punctual 
in observing his engagements. 

3. The days in December you know are at their shortest and 
therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much 
daylight. 

4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if his 
memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he needs. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence to 
sentence make a note of whatever strikes his attention. 

6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be 
forgotten. 

7. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we 
boast of could the world see our real motive. 

RULE IV. 

Relative Clauses not Restrictive. — Clauses intro- 
duced by a relative pronoun, if not restrictive, should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. See Note under Rule II., for an explanation of what is meant by restric- 
tive clauses. 

2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restric- 
tively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a phrase inclosed in 
commas ; as, " Those friends, who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived 
the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were at length amply rewarded." 

3. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, 
if several words intervene between it and its grammatical antecedent ; as, 
" He preaches most eloquently, who leads the most pious life." 

4. Of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are preceded by 
a comma; as, "No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the 
groundwork." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous 
passion had now taken full possession of him. 

2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance. 

3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples 
of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence. 

4. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we are 
born. 

5. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history fur- 
nishes many examples. 

6. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who has 
never been at sea. 

7. The powers which now move the world are the printing- 
press and the telegraph. 

8. America may well boast of her Washington whose character 
and fame are the common property of the world. 



PUNCTUATION. 185 

RULE V. 

A Continued Sentence consisting of Co-ordinate 
Sentences. — In a continued sentence, consisting of co- 
ordinate sentences, the several co-ordinate sentences, if 
simple in construction, are separated from each other by- 
commas. 

If, however, these co-ordinate sentences are complex and involved, espe- 
cially if they have commas within themselves, the sentences should be sepa- 
rated by a semicolon ,• as, " Crafty men, though they may pretend other- 
wise, contemn studies ; simple men, though they really care nothing about 
the matter, yet pretend to admire them ,• wise men use them." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and 
wise men use them. 

2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you 
promise. 

3. Caesar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was in 
confusion. 

RULE VI. 

Grammatical Expressions in the same Construc- 
tion forming a Series. — Grammatical expressions in 
the same construction forming a series should be separated 
from each other, and from what follows, by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. A grammatical expression is a collection of words, having some gram- 
matical dependence and connection, but not containing in themselves a 
predicate. 

2. If the expressions are brief, and there are but two of them, connected 
by and, or, or nor, no comma between them is needed ; as, " Hard study 
and neglect of exercise impair the health." If, however, the two connected 

. expressions differ much in form, it is better to set them off by commas ; as, 
" Hard study, and the entire absence of attention to the matter of diet, 
bring on disease." 



186 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the 
choice of friends are important traits of character. 

2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from 
malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 

3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a 
paler sky? 

4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the 
mind with great ideas. 

RULE VII. 

Words in the same Construction forming a Series. 
— Words in the same construction, forming a series, ad- 
mit of the following three cases : — 

L There may be a conjunction between each two of the words ; 
as, "Industry and honesty and frugality and temperance are 
among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in 
the series are to be separated by commas. 

2. The conjunction maybe omitted, except between the last two 
of the words ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance 
are among the cardinal virtues. " In this case, all the words are 
to be separated from each other by commas. 

3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two words, 
as well as between the others ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, 
temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not 
only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other 
by commas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, 
to separate it from what follows. 

A coQima is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, 
if what follows is only a single word; as, " The good will form hereafter 
stronger, purer, holier ties." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 

2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 

3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations. 

4. He was a brave pious patriotic man. 



PUNCTUATION. 187 

5. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword. 

6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly written. 

7. We are fearfully wonderfully made. 

8. Virtue religion is the one thing needful. 

9. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 

10. The earth the air the water teem with life. 

11. Grand ideas and sentiments elevate and ennoble the mind. 

RULE VIII. 

Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or phrases in 
pairs take a comma after each pair. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation and 
ruin are the consequences of civil war. 

2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence and 
devotion were all remarked in him. 

3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young 
and the old have one common Father. 

4. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us do all in 
moderation. 

RULE IX. 

Nouns in Apposition. — A Noun iu apposition to 
some preceding noun or pronoun, and having an adjunct 
consisting of several words, should, with all its connected 
words, be separated from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

NOTES. 

1. Where the noun put in apposition stands alone, or has only an article 
before it, no comma is required between said noun and the word with which 
it is in apposition ; as, " Paul the apostle was a man of energy." 

2. A noun following another as a synonym, or as giving additional illus- 
tration to the thought, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma 
before and after; as "The word Poet, meaning a maker, a creator, is de- 
rived from the Greek." 

3. When a noun is predicated of the noun or pronoun with which it is 
in apposition, no comma is required between them; as, " They have just 
elected him Governor of the State." 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. After several words containing a description of a person or thing, if 
the name of the person or thing is added, it should be set off from the rest 
of the sentence by commas ; as, " The greatest of poets among the ancients, 
Homer, like the greatest among the moderns, Milton, was blind." 

5. A title, whether abbreviated or expressed in full, when annexed to a 
noun or pronoun, must be set off by commas ; as, "At the request of the Rt. 
Rev. W. H. Odenheimer, D. D., the ceremony was postponed." 



Examples for Practice. 

1. We the people of the United States do hereby ordain and 
establish this Constitution. 

2. Virgil the chief poet among the Eomans was fond of rural 
life. 

3. To call a man a fool is not to make him one. 

4. The chief work of Chaucer the Canterbury Tales suggested 
to Longfellow the plan of his work the Tales of a Wayside 
Inn. 

5. John Chapman Doctor of Medicine. John Chapman M. D. 

RULE X. 

The Vocative Case. — A noun in the vocative case, 
or case independent, as it is called, together with its 
adjunct words, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma, or by commas. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my regard. 

2. I beg sir to acknowledge the receipt of your favor. 

3. I rise Mr. President to a point of order. 

4. Show pity Lord ! O Lord forgive ! 

5. Remember sir you cannot have it. 

RULE XL 

The Case Absolute. — A clause containing the con- 
struction known as the case absolute should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas. 






PUNCTUATION. 189 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in the midst. 

2. A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than a 
state of pleasure. 

3. Shame lost all virtue is lost. 

4. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne. 

5. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of my mas- 
ter's brother. 

RULE XII. 
Inverted Clauses. — Inverted clauses, standing at the 
beginning of a sentence, are separated from the rest of 
the sentence by a comma. 

NOTES. 

1. The infinitive mood, especially when used to express object or design, 
is often inverted in this way ; as, " To obtain an education he was willing 
to make sacrifices." 

2. In making alphabetical catalogues, compound names, such as John 
Quincy Adams, are usually inverted, that is, the last word in the name, being 
the principal one, is put first, and is then separated from the other parts of 
the name by a comma ; as, Adams, John Quincy. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect. 

2. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 

3. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful trick. 

4. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another. 

5. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him. 

RULE XIII. 
Ellipsis of the Verb. — In continued sentences, hav- 
ing a common verb, which is expressed in one of the 
members, but omitted in the others, the ellipsis of the 
verb is marked by a comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Eeading maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; writing 
an exact man. 

2. Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

3. Semiramis built Babylon; Dido Carthage; and Eomulus 
Eome. 

RULE XIV. 

Short Quotations. — A short quotation, or a sentence 
resembling a quotation, should be preceded by a comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by saying " It is 
natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope." 

2. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in forming your 
opinions. 

3. I say There is no such thing as human perfection. 

4. Some one justly remarks " It is a great loss to lose an afflic- 
tion." 

II. THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon marks a division of a sentence some- 
what larger and more complex than that marked by a 
comma. 

RULE I. 

Subdivided Members in Compound Sentences. — 
When a sentence consists of two members, and these 
members, or either of them, are themselves subdivided 
by commas, the larger divisions of the sentence should 
be separated by a semicolon. 

NOTES. 

1. If the connection between these members is close, the semicolon is not 
used. The word "when/' introducing the first member, indicates this kind 
of close connection, and prevents ordinarily the use of the semicolon. The 
Rule itself furnishes an example of the semicolon omitted in a sentence 
beginning with " when." 

2. When the members are considerably complex, they are sometimes 
separated by a semicolon, even though not subdivided by commas ; as, " So 
sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction ; and we 
are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being 
softened." 



PUNCTUATION. 191 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Sparre was sulky and perverse because he was a citizen of a 
republic. 

2. Sparre the Dutch general was sulky and perverse because 
according to Lord Mahon he was a citizen of a republic. 

3. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and like 
Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. 

4. You may quit the field of business though not the field of 
danger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be ridic- 
ulous. 

RULE II. 

Clauses and Expressions having a Common De- 
pendence. — When several clauses or grammatical ex- 
pressions of similar construction follow each other in a 
series, all having a common dependence upon some 
other clause, they are separated from each other by a 
semicolon, and from the clause on which they all depend, 
by a comma. 

Example. — " Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in 
her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; 
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
generations will continue to make discoveries." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our progress 
through the most delightful narrative in the language to observe 
that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked more for 
victory than for truth that his taste for port wine with capilliare 
in it was very odd that Boswell was impertinent and that it was 
foolish in Mrs. Thrale to marry the music-master. 

2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when they 
stand in competition to despise every advantage which cannot be 
attained without dishonest acts to brook no meanness and to 
stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a great mind. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE III. 

Sentences Connected in Meaning, but without 
Grammatical Dependence. — Sentences following each 
other, without grammatical dependence, but connected 
in meaning, are usually separated from each other by 
semicolons. 

Example.—-" She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it 
in her tears ; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can 
describe." 

In all the cases which come under this Rule, two features are essential. 
First, each of the several members forming the continued sentence should be 
complete in itself, so that it might grammatically stand alone, with a period 
following. Secondly, these several members should have some underlying 
thread of connection in the thought. Authors differ in regard to the punc- 
tuation, in these cases. Some insist on separating the members by a period. 
By such a course, however, we lose one important means of marking nice 
changes of thought. Others use the colon, instead of the semicolon, for these 
purposes. This was the case formerly much more than now. The best 
usage at present is, to employ a period, a colon, a semicolon, or a comma, 
according to the degree of complexity or simplicity of the several sentences, 
and the degree of closeness or looseness of connection in the thought. If 
the connection is close, and the successive members are short and simple, 
the comma is used; if the members are somewhat longer, and especially if 
any of them are at all complex, the semicolon is used ; if, in addition to 
this, the connection irr the thought is but faint, the colon is used ; and when 
the connection almost disappears, the period is used. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and 
feel. 

2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its 
frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the beast 
in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the habita- 
tion of men. 

3. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the 
house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs 
horses neigh beside the altar. 



PUNCTUATIOIST. 193 

RULE IV. 

The Clause Additional. — When a sentence com- 
plete in itself is followed by a clause which is added by 
way of inference, explanation, or enumeration, the addi- 
tional clause, if formally introduced by some connecting 
word, is separated from the main body of the sentence 
by a semicolon ; but, if merely appended without any 
such connecting word, by a colon. 

Examples. — Apply yourself to study ; for it will redound to your 
honor. Apply yourself to study : it will redound to your honor. 

Some of the coDnecting words most commonly used for this purpose are 
namely, for, but, yet, to ivit, etc. 

The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, should be 
preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus 
Xenophon and Thucydides. 

2. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages 
viz. the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 

3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages 
the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 

4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal 
virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence. 

RULE V. 

A General Term in Apposition to the Particulars 
under it. — A general term in apposition to several 
others which are particulars under it is separated from 
the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars are 
separated from each other by commas. 

If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much for- 
mality, so as to make the several expressions complex, containing 
commas of their own, then these particulars must be separated 
17 N 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



from the general term by a colon, and from each other by semi- 
colons ; as, — 

Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes; Distributive, Demon- 
strative, and Indefinite. 

Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes : first, the Dis- 
tributive, which are four in number; secondly, the Demonstrative, which 
are four ; and thirdly, the Indefinite, which are nine. 



III. THE COLON. 

The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly- 
complete than a semicolon. 

The word is derived from the Greek ku>\ov (colon), a limb, or member. 
The two principal uses of the colon have already been given in Rules IV. 
and V., preceding. The following additional rules are given. 

RULE I. 

Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences. — When 
the minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semi- 
colon, the greater divisions should be separated by a 
colon; thus, — 

As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not per- 
ceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody 
ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist 
of such insensible steps, are only perceivable by the distance. 

RULE II. 

Before a Quotation. — A colon is used before a direct 
quotation; thus, — 

Speaking of party, Pope makes this remark : " There never was any 
party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were 
not the most violent." 

If the quotation is of considerable length, consisting of several 



PUNCTUATION. 195 

sentences, or begins a new paragraph, it should be preceded by 
both a colon and a dash. Example : — 

At the close of the meeting, the president rose and said : — 

u Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that I address you 

on this occasion," etc. 

If the quotation is merely some short saying, a comma is sufficient,- as, 

Dr. Thomas Brown says, " The benevolent spirit is as universal as the 

miseries which are capable of being relieved." 

RULE III. 

Yes and No. — The words yes and no, when in answer 
to a question, should be followed by a colon, provided 
the words which follow the yes and no are a continuation 
of the answer ; as, — 

" Can these words add vigor to your hearts ? Yes : they can do it ; they 
have often done it." 

Yes and no are often followed by some noun in the vocative 
case, or case independent ; as, " Yes, sir," " Yes, my lords," etc. In 
such cases, the colon should come after the vocative; as, "Yes, 
sir: they can do it." " Yes, my lords: I am amazed at his lord- 
ship's speech." 

Examples for Practice on the Rules for the 
Comma, the Semicolon, and the Colon. 

[Tell what Point is due at each place where this mark o occurs, and give 
the Rule for the same.] 

1. Satire always tends to dwarf o and it cannot fail to carica- 
ture o but poetry does nothing o if it does not tend to enlarge 
and exalt o and if it does not seek rather to beautify than deform. 

2. This is an iambic line o in which the first foot is formed of 
a word and a part of a word o the second and third o of parts 
taken from the body or interior of a word o the fourth o of a 
part and a whole o the fifth o of two complete words. 

3. Melissa o like the bee o gathers honey from every weed o 
while Arachne o like the spider o sucks poison from the fairest 
flowers. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united ? No o sir 
o no united nation can be o that has the spirit to resolve not to 
be conquered. 

5. Be our plain answer this o The throne we honor is the 
people's choice o the laws we reverence are our brave fathers' 
legacy o the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of charity 
with all mankind o and die with hope of bliss beyond the grave. 

6. The discourse consisted of two parts o in the first was 
shown the necessity of exercise o in the second © the advantages 
that would result from it. 

IV. THE PERIOD. 
The Period marks the completion of the sentence. 

The word Period is derived from the Greek nepiodog (period), a circuit, 
and means primarily anything rounded or brought to completion. It was 
the first point introduced. 

RULE I. 

Complete Sentences. — Sentences which are com- 
plete in sense, and not connected in construction with 
what follows, and not exclamatory or interrogative in 
their character, should be followed by a period. 

RULE II. 

After Abbreviations. — A period is used after all 
abbreviated words. 

NOTES. 

1. The most common method of abbreviation is to use the first letter of a 
word lor the whole word, as B. Franklin for Benjamin Franklin. Some- 
times, in abbreviating the word, the first letter is doubled; as, p. ior page, 
pp. for pages, M. for Monsieur, MM. for Messieurs. In such cases, a period 
is not inserted between the two letters which represent the plural of one 
word. This explains why there is no period between the two L's in the 
title LL.D. (Legutn Doctor), the LL. standing for one word in the plural, 
and the D. for the other word in the singular. Sometimes a word is abbre- 



P U N C T UATION. 197 

viated by taking the first two or throe letters, as En,^. for England; some- 
times by taking the first letter and the la^t, as Win. for William, Ca. for 
California; sometimes by taking the first letter and some leading letter in 
the middle of the word, as Mo. for Missouri, MS. for manuscript. In these 
cases, the period is to be used only at the end of the combined letters. In 
the case last cited, the last letter of the combination is doubled when the 
word is plural; as, MS. manuscript, MSS. manuscripts. 

2. When an abbreviated word comes at the end of a sentence, it is not 
necessary to use two periods. One point is sufficient to mark both the abbre- 
viation and the end of the sentence. But if the construction requires some 
other point, as the comma, semicolon, colon, interrogation, etc., both points 
must be inserted, one to mark the grammatical construction, the other to 
mark the abbreviation ; as, •' He reported the death of John Chapman, M.D." 
"John Chapman, M.D., at the early age of twenty-four, was carried off by 
disease." 

3. When two or more abbreviated titles follow each other, they must be 
separated from each other by commas, just as they would be, if written out 
in full. Thus : " Thomas Sumner, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws, 
Bishop of London, " abbreviated, becomes, "Thomas Sumner, D.D., LL.D., 
Bp. of London." 

4. Proper names are sometimes permanently shortened, the short form 
being meant, not as an ordinary abbreviation, but as the real and true name. 
This was the case with the celebrated dramatist, Ben Jonson. We have 
analogous and more familiar instances in Ned Buntline, Bill Smith, Tom 
Jones, etc. In such cases, no period should be inserted to mark abbreviation. 

5. In like manner, various other abbreviations which are in very familiar 
use acquire the character of integral words, not requiring the period after 
them to denote abbreviations. They become nouns, with a singular and a 
plural. Thus, in England, Cantab (an abridgment of Cantabrigiensis, and 
meaning an alumnus of Cambridge University), has become a noun, the 
body of the alumni being called Cantabs, and any one of them a Cantab. 
In like manner, we have Jap and Japs for Japanese, consol and consols for 
consolidated loan or consolidated loans of the British Government, three 
per cents, five per cents, etc. 

6. The word cent, in the combination per cent, had become thoroughly es- 
tablished as an integral word, and was almost universally written and printed 
without the mark of abbreviation ; but of late years, some writers, in a 
spirit of hypercriticism, have insisted, unwisely I think, on restoring the 
period after cent to show that it is an abbreviation of centum. They ought 
in consistency to put a period after quart, to show that it is an abbreviation 
of quarta, or after cab, because it is abbreviated for cabriolet. 

7. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, A, B, C, etc., when used in geom- 
etry and other sciences to represent quantities, are not abbreviations, and 
should not be so marked by the insertion of a period. 

8. When the letters of the alphabet are used to represent numerals, it is 

17* 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

customary to insert a period at the end of each completed numeral; as, 
Psalms iv., xxi., lxxxvi., cxix., etc. When dates are thus expressed, the 
whole number is separated into periods of thousands, hundreds, and the por- 
tion less than a hundred; as, M.DCCC.LXXI. for the year one thousand, 
eight hundred, and seventy-one, or 1871. 

9. The Arabic figures, 1, 2, 3, etc., and the various marks used by printers, 
as § for section, <[[ for paragraph, etc., are not abbreviations, but stand for 
whole words, and therefore do not require the period. The period is used, 
however, before decimals, and between pounds and shillings; as, £2. 10s. 4d. 
sterling was worth $13,719 at the rate of exchange then prevailing. 

10. The words 4to, 8vo, 12mo, etc., are not strictly abbreviations, the 
figures representing a part of the word. If the letters were written in place 
of the figures which represent them, it would be seen at once that the words 
are complete, qnar-to, octa-vo, duodeci-mo, etc. Periods therefore are not 
required for such words. The same rule will apply to 1st, 2dly, 3dly, etc. 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what Point is needed at each place where this mark o occurs, and 
give the Rule for the same.] 

1. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 o B o C o o 
those of Lycurgus o 884 o B o C o o of Draco o 623 o B o 
C o o of Solon o 587 o B o C o o See chap o vii o I xiv o 
T 7 o p o 617 o 

2. The reader is requested to refer to the following passages 
of Scripture o Ex o xx o 18 o Deut o xx o 19 o 2 o Sam o 
xix o 2 o 

3. Bought o on 9 mos credit o the following articles o 4 yds o 
3 qrs o 2 n o of broadcloth at $12 a yd o o 6 gals o 1 pt o 2 
gi o of vinegar at 65 cts o a gal o o and 3 J cords of wood at 
$7.50 a cord o 

4. Excellence in conversation depends o in a great measure o 
on the attainments which one has made o if o therefore o 
education is neglected o conversation will become trifling o if 
perverted o corrupting. 

5. Dryden's page is a natural field o rising into inequalities o 
and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegeta- 
tion o Pope's is a velvet lawn o shaven by the scythe o and 
levelled by the roller. 



PUNCTUATION. 199 

V. THE INTERROGATION POINT. 
An Interrogation Point is used for marking ques- 
tions. 

In regard to the portion of discourse marked off by it, the In- 
terrogation Point is equivalent most commonly to a period ; but 
it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. 

It is a question of some importance to know, in each case, to which of 
these four points the interrogation point is equivalent, because upon this 
depends the propriety of using, or not using, a capital after* it. When there 
is, in that particular construction, but one interrogation point, it is always 
equivalent to a period, and should be followed by a capital. When, how- 
ever, there is a succession of questions, following each other in a series, with- 
out any affirmative sentences intervening, the interrogation point some- 
times represents sections of discourse less than a period. The way to 
determine to which class the particular question belongs is to change the 
construction into an affirmative form. It will, in one case, be resolved into 
a series of independent sentences, separated by periods; in the other, into 
a connected or continued sentence, with co-ordinate members separated by 
commas, semicolons, or colons. Example : 

" Who will bring me into the strong city? who will lead me into Edom ? 
Wilt not thou, God, who hast cast us off? and wilt not thou, God, go 
forth with our hosts ? " (Ps. 108 : 10, 11.) Change to the affirmative form. 
" Some one will bring me into the strong city; some one will lead me into 
Edom. Thou, God, who hast cast us off, wilt do it; thou, God, wilt go 
forth with our hosts." 

"Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety? by murder? by 
falsehood ? by theft?" Affirmatively: "A man cannot obtain the favor of 
Heaven by impiety, by murder, by falsehood, by theft." 

RULE. 

Direct Questions. — The interrogation point should 
be placed at the end of every direct question. 

NOTES. 

1. A direct question is one in regular form, requiring, or at least admit- 
ting an answer; as, " Why do you neglect your duty?" An indirect ques- 
tion is one that is merely reported or spoken of; as, " He inquired why you 
neglected your duty." 

2. When there is a succession of questions, having a common grammat- 
ical dependence on some preceding word or clause, each question forming 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by itself an incomplete sentence, some writers place an interrogation point 
at the end of the series, and separate the several members by a dash, or 
perhaps by a comma. This method of punctuation is not correct. Each 
question, no matter how short or broken, should have its own point. See 
the example immediately preceding the Rule. 

3. Sometimes a question is intended, although the words are not put in 
the usual interrogative form. Thus : " You will come this afternoon ? " In 
such cases the interrogation point should be used, as in this example, 
although the sentence may be declarative in its form. 

ao^O* 

VI. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The Exclamation Point is used for marking strong 
emotion. 

In regard to the portion of discourse set off by it, the exclamation point, 
like the interrogation point, is equivalent commonly to a period; but it may 
be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. The same considerations 
govern here that govern in the case of the Interrogation. 

RULE I. 

After Strong Emotion. — The exclamation point must 
be used at the close of every sentence, clause, or gram- 
matical expression, intended to convey strong emotion. 

Inexperienced and weak writers are apt to deal largely in the use of the 
exclamation point, as if to make up for the feebleness of the thought by 
mere tricks of punctuation. Young writers therefore should be on their 
guard in this matter, and not use the exclamation point unless there is some 
real and strong emotion to be expressed. 

RULE II. 

After an Interjection. — The exclamation point must 
be used after an interjection ; as, Ah me ! 

NOTES. 

1. Where the interjection does not stand by itself, but forms part of a 
sentence, clause, or expression, the exclamation point should be placed at 
the end of the whole expression, and not immediately after the interrogation ; 
as, " wretched state ! bosom black as death ! " 



PUNCTUATION. 201 

2. Sometimes oh is grammatically separable from the words following it, 
though the emotion runs through the whole. In that case, there should be 
a comma after the oh, and the exclamation point at the end of the whole 
expression; as, " Oh, where shall rest be found ! " 

3. When an interjection is repeated several times, the words are separated 
from each other by a comma, the exclamation being put only after the last ; 
as, "Fie, fie, fie! pah, pah! give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to 
sweeten my imagination." 

4. Two of the interjections, eh and hey, are sometimes uttered in a peculiar 
tone, so as to ask a question. In that case, they should be followed by the 
interrogation point; as, "You thought you would not be found out, eh?" 

RULE III. 

More than One Exclamation Point. — Where the 
emotion to be expressed is very strong, more than one 
exclamation point is sometimes used ; as, " That man 
virtuous ! ! You might as well preach to me of the 
virtue of Judas Iscariot ! ! " 

This mode of repeating the exclamation point is much used in burlesque 
and satire. 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what Point is needed in each place where this mark © occurs, and 
give the Rule for the same.] 

1. Why o for so many a year o has the poet wandered amid 
the fragments of Athens and Rome o and paused o with strange 
and kindling feelings o amid their broken columns o their 
mouldering temples o their deserted plains o 

2. Greece o indeed o fell o but how did she fall o Did she fall 
like Babylon o Did she fall like Lucifer o never to rise again o 

3. Have you eyes o Could you on this fair mountain leave to 
feed o and batten on this moor o Ha o have you eyes o You 
cannot call it love o for o at your age o the hey-day in the 
blood is tame, it's humble, and waits upon the judgment o and 
what judgment would step from this to this o 

4. Charge o Chester o charge o on o Stanley o on o 

5. King Charles o forsooth o had so many private virtues o 
And had James no private virtues o Was even Oliver Cromwell 
o his bitterest enemies themselves being judges o destitute of 
private virtues o And what o after all o are the virtues ascribed 
to Charles o 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

VII. THE DASH. 

The Dash is used chiefly, either to mark a sudden 
change or interruption in the structure of the sentence, 
or to mark some elocutionary pause. 

The Dash, which is of modern origin, has been used so indiscriminately 
and injudiciously by ill-informed writers, that some critics have insisted on 
banishing it entirely. This would be only going to another extreme. There 
are, in many passages, in those particularly which are highly rhetorical, 
turns of thought, which can be indicated by a dash, and which cannot be 
indicated by any of the ordinary grammatical points. The dash, therefore, 
is a necessity in many kinds of composition. But it should not be used as 
a substitute for the comma, semicolon, colon, period, or interrogation, as in- 
expert writers sometimes do mistakenly use it, but should be employed 
where these regular marks cannot be used, and to express things which they 
cannot express. The dash, therefore, is incorrect whenever any one of these 
marks could be substituted for it without changing the meaning. Young 
writers particularly need to be on their guard in using the dash. Mark 
every dash as wrong, unless some positive reason for its use can be given, 
and unless it can be shown that none of the ordinary marks would express 
the idea. 

RULE I. 

Construction Changed. — A dash is used where the 
construction of the sentence is abruptly broken off or 
changed. Example : — 

Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? Was 
there ever — but I scorn to boast. 

RULE II. 

Unexpected Change in Sentiment. — The dash is 
sometimes used to mark a sudden and unexpected change 
in the sentiment. Example : — 

He had no malice in his mind — 
No ruffles on his shirt. 






PUNCTUATION. 203 

RULE III. 

Emphatic Generalization. — A dash is sometimes 
used to mark the transition from a succession of particu- 
lars to some emphatic general expression which includes 
them alL Example : — 

He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible, — everything but 
honest. 

RULE IV. 

A Series Dependent upon a Concluding Clause. 

— When there is a long series of clauses or expressions, 
all dependent upon some concluding clause, it is usual, 
in passing from the preceding part of the passage to that 
upon which the whole depends, to mark the transition by 
inserting a dash, in addition to the comma. Example : — 

The great men of Eome, her beautiful legends, her history, the 
height to which she rose, and the depth to which she fell, — these 
make up one-half of the student's ideal world. 

The most common example of this use of the dash is where the gram- 
matical subject or nominative is loaded with numerous adjuncts, so that 
there is danger of its being lost sight of when the verb is introduced. The 
insertion of the dash here seems to give the mind an opportunity of going 
back to the main subject; as, "Every step in the attainment of physical 
power; every new trait of intelligence, as they one by one arise in the in- 
fantine intellect, like the glory of night, starting star by star into the sky, 

— is hailed with a heart-burst of rapture and surprise/' 

RULE V. 

Rhetorical Repetition. — When a word or an expres- 
sion is repeated for rhetorical purposes, the construction 
being begun anew, a dash should be inserted before each 
such repetition. Example : — 

Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but certainly brought 
up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general — shall I, 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine 
nations, but of the Alps themselves — shall I compare myself with 
this half-year captain ? 

Note. — This kind of repetition is sometimes called by elocutionists the 
Echo. 

RULE VI. 

Elocutionary Pause. — A dash is sometimes used to 
mark a significant pause, where there is no break in the 
grammatical construction. Example : — 

You have given the command to a person of illustrious birth, 
of ancient family, of innumerable statues, but — of no experience. 

The mark here is purely elocutionary. A good reader will pause some 
perceptible time after the but, whether there is a mark there or not. The dash 
serves to indicate to the eye what the good reader will indicate by his voice. 
This particular use of the dash is pretty well established, and it is not worth 
while to make any change in regard to it now. But were the matter of 
elocutionary notation to be undertaken anew, it would seem better to mark 
this suspension of the voice by some other means than by a dash, the dash 
being used for other and very different purposes. 

RULE VII. 

Reflex Apposition. — Words at the end of a sentence, 
and standing somewhat detached, and referring back by 
apposition to preceding parts of the sentence, should be 
separated from the previous portions by a dash. Exam- 
ples : — 

The four greatest names in English poetry are among the first 
we come to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton. 

Kings and their subjects, masters and their slaves, find a com- 
mon level in two places, — at the cross, and in the grave. 

Note. — The dash here is said by some to indicate the omission of namely, 
or that is. It is true that one of these expressions might be inserted in most 
cases that come under this rule, but the passage would thereby lose in rhetor- 
ical force. The dash, in this case, as in Rule VI., is in fact purely elocution- 
ary. 



PUNCTUATION. 205 

RULE VIII. 

The Dash Parenthetical. — Parenthetical expressions 
are sometimes included between two dashes, instead of 
the usual signs of parenthesis. Examples : — 

The smile of a child — always so ready when there is no dis- 
tress, and so soon recurring when that distress has passed away — 
is like an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. 

The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without, — if not, as 
some philosophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet in a 
moral sense, — exist within us. 

NOTES. 

1. If, when the parenthetical part is removed from a sentence like one of 
these, the portions remaining require no point between them, no points 
besides the dashes will be required at the beginning and end of the paren- 
thetical expression. Thus, in the first of the foregoing examples, if the 
parenthetical part be left out, the remaining portion will read, " The smile 
of a child is like an opening," etc. But if the parenthetical part be left out 
of the second example, it will read, " The archetypes, the ideal forms of 
things without, exist within us," with a comma at the place where each of 
the dashes come in. In such cases, there must be two commas in the paren- 
thetical form of the sentence, namely, one before each of the dashes, as in 
the example. 

2. If the parenthetical words express an interrogation or an exclamation, 
they must be followed by an interrogation point or an exclamation point, 
before the concluding dash ; as, Religion — who can doubt it? — is the 
noblest theme for the exercise of the intellect. 

3. The question, whether the marks which separate parenthetical words 
from the rest of the sentence shall be dashes, commas, or marks of paren- 
thesis, is left a good deal to the fancy of the writer. The subject will be 
more particularly explained in the section on the Parenthesis. 

RULE IX. 
Question and Answer. — If question and answer, 
instead of beginning separate lines, are run into a para- 
graph, they should be separated by a dash. Example : — 

Who made you? — God. What else did God make? — God 

made all things. Why did God make you and all things? — God 
made all things for his own glory. 
18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE X. 

Omissions. — The dash is used to mark the omissions 
of letters or figures ; as, — 

General W n captured the Hessians at Trenton. 

Matt. 9:1 — 6. [N. B. This is equivalent to Matt. 9 : 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6.] 

RULE XI. 

Examples on a New Line. — A dash should follow 
as and thus, when the example following them begins a 
new line. 

For example, see the preceding Rule. 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what point is needed at each place where this mark o occurs, and 
give the Rule for the same.] 

1. Almost all kinds of raw material extracted from the interior 
of the earth o metals o coals o precious stones o and the like o 
are obtained from mines differing in fertility. 

2. Each of these great and ever memorable struggles o Saxon 
against Norman o villein against lord o Roundhead against 
Cavalier o Dissenter against Churchman o Manchester against 
Old Sarum o was o in its own order and season o a struggle on 
the result of which were staked the dearest interests of the human 
raceo 

3. Here lies the great o False marble o where o Nothing 
but sordid dust lies here o 

4. Greece o Carthage o Rome o where are they o 

5. " I plunged right into the debate o and " o " Did not say 
a word to the point o of course " o 

6. "How are you o Trepid o How do you feel to-day o Mr. 
Trepid?" "A great deal worse than I was o thank you o 
almost dead o I am obliged to you " o " Why o Trepid o what 
is the matter with you " o " Nothing o I tell you o nothing in 
particular o but a great deal is the matter with me in general "o 



PUNCTUATION. 207 

VIII. THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words 
which have little or no connection with the rest of the 
sentence. 

NOTES. 

1. The word parenthesis (Greek vapivSeois, insertion) signifies something 
inserted or put in, and applies primarily to a sentence or a part of a sen- 
tence inserted, by way of comment or explanation, in the midst of another 
sentence, of which it is independent in construction, and which is gram- 
matically complete without it. 

2. We must distinguish between parenthesis and marks of parenthesis. 
The parenthesis is the sentence, or part of a sentence, that is. inserted into 
another sentence. The marks of parenthesis are the two curved lines which 
inclose the words thus let in. The term marks of parenthesis, to indicate 
these curved lines, is preferred to the term parentheses. Parentheses means 
properly parenthetical sentences, not marks of parenthesis. 

3. Sometimes commas, and sometimes dashes, are used instead of the 
curved lines, to inclose words that are of a parenthetical character, and it is 
not always easy to determine when to use one of these modes, and when to 
use another. It may be observed, in general, that the curved lines mark 
the greatest degree of separation from the rest of the sentence ; the dashes, 
the next greatest; and the commas, the least separation of all. 

Rule for Parenthesis. 

Words inserted in the body of a sentence, and nearly 
or quite independent of it in meaning and construction, 
should be inclosed with the marks of parenthesis. 

NOTES. 

1. A very common example of the use of marks of parenthesis is in the 
reports of speeches, where a person is referred to, but not named. In the 
actual delivery of the speech, the person meant is sufficiently indicated by 
the speaker's pointing to him, or looking at him, or by other significant 
gesture. But as this cannot be transferred to the written or printed page, 
the reporter usually supplies its place by inserting the name of the person 
meant, and the name thus inserted by the reporter is inclosed by marks of 
parenthesis. Thus: "After the very lucid exposition of the matter by the 
gentleman opposite to me (Mr. Stuart), it will not be necessary for me to 
say much in defence of this part of the subject." 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. In reporting speeches, marks of parenthesis are used to inclose excla- 
mations of approbation or disapprobation on the part of the audience; as, 
"My lords, I am amazed at his lordship's declaration (hear, hear). Yes, 
my lords : I am amazed, that one in his position could so far forget the 
proprieties of debate. " 

3. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose a query, or comment of any 
kind, made by the one who is reporting, copying, or quoting the words of 
another; as, " The Romans were the first (indeed ?) who learned the art of 
navigation." 

4. In strict aecurac}', the marks in these three cases (Notes 1, 2, 3) should 
be brackets, because the matter thus inserted is really an interpolation by 
the reporter. But custom has sanctioned the use of marks of parenthesis 
in these cases. [See Section IX., Brackets, Note 2.] 

5. In scientific works, marks of parenthesis are used to inclose figures or 
letters that are employed in enumerating a list of particulars ; as, " The 
unlawfulness of suicide appears from the following considerations : (1.) 
Suicide is unlawful on account of its general consequences. (2.) Because 
it is the duty," etc. 

6. If no point would be required between the parts of a sentence, in case 
there were no parenthesis there, then no points should be used at that place, 
in addition to the marks of parenthesis ; as, " The Egyptian style of archi- 
tecture (see Dr. Pocock's work) was apparently the mother of the Greek." 

7. If a point would be required between the parts of a sentence, in case 
no parenthesis were there, then, when the parenthesis is inserted, said point 
should be inserted also, and should be placed after the second mark of paren- 
thesis ; as, " Pride, in some disguise or other, is the most ordinary spring 
of action." " Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud 
man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action." 

8. If the parenthetical part of a sentence requires at the end a point of its 
own, this point should come inside of the last mark of parenthesis, and the 
point belonging to the main sentence should come before the first mark of 
parenthesis; as, "While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow- 
men, (and why should he not desire it?) he disdains to receive their good- 
will by dishonorable means." 



o>^o 



IX. BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to inclose in a sentence a word, or 
words, which do not form part of the original composi- 
tion. 



PUNCTUATION. 209 

NOTES. 

1. Brackets are somewhat like the marks of parenthesis in form, one, how- 
ever, being angular, the other curved, and are also in some respects like the 
latter in signification and use. 

2. Brackets are used to inclose a sentence, or a part of a sentence, within 
the body of another sentence, and thus far are like the marks of parenthesis. 
But the matter included within brackets is entirely independent of the sen- 
tence, and so differs from what is merely parenthetical. Further, the matter 
within the brackets is usually inserted by one writer to correct or add to 
what has been written by another, while the parenthesis is a part of the 
original composition, and is written by the same person that wrote the rest 
of the sentence. 

3. The comma before and after, the dash before and after, the marks of 
parenthesis, and the brackets, all have something in common. They all 
are used to include matter which is inserted in the body of a sentence, and 
which is more or less independent of the sentence, aud extraneous to it. 
They indicate increasing degrees of independence and extraneousness, about 
in the order in which they have just been named, the comma before and 
after showing least, and the brackets showing most, of this independence. 

Rule for the Use of Brackets. 

In correcting or modifying the expressions of another, 
by inserting words of our own, the words thus inserted 
should be inclosed in brackets. Examples : — 

A soft answer turn [turns] away wrath. 

The number of our days are [is] with thee. 

The letter [which] you wrote me on Saturday came duly to hand. 

The captain had several men [who] died on the voyage. 

NOTES. 

1. Brackets are used in critical editions of ancient authors to indicate 
that in the opinion of the editor the words so inclosed are an interpolation, 
and do not belong to the original. The words thus bracketed are not inter- 
polated by the editor, but the editor takes this means of indicating that they 
have been interpolated by somebody else. He fears to leave the words out 
altogether, because they have stood so long in the text, but he takes this 
means of showing that he considers them spurious. 

2. Brackets are used in dictionaries to separate the pronunciation, or the 
etymology of a word, or some incidental remark about it, from the other 
parts of the explanation. Thus: Resemblant [Fr. ressemhler, to resemble]. 
Having resemblance. [Rare.] 

18* O 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, and the 
punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brackets, the same rules 
will apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. 

Examples on all the preceding Rules. 

1. The last words of Raleigh were o " Why dost thou not 
strike o Strike o man o" o To the executioner o who was paus- 
ing o The last of the Duke of -Buckingham o "Traitor o thou 
hast killed me o " o To the assassin Felton o The last of Charles 
II. o "Don't let poor Nelly starve o " © Referring to Nell 
Gwynne o The last of William III. o "Can this last long©" 
o To his physician o The last of Locke o "Cease now o " o To 
Lady Markham o who had been reading the Psalms to him © 

2. If we exercise right principles © and we cannot have them 
unless we exercise them © they must be perpetually on the in- 
crease © 

3. Are you still © I fear you are © far from being comfort- 
ably settled © 

4. Know then this truth © enough for man to know © 
Virtue alone is happiness below © 

5. The Egyptian style of architecture © see Dr Pocock © not 
his discourses © but his prints © was apparently the mother of 
the Greek © 



X. QUOTATION MARKS. 

A Quotation is the introduction into one's discourse 
of a word or of words uttered by some one else. 

The marks of quotation are two inverted commas (") at the beginning, 
and two apostrophes (") at the end, of the portion quoted. 

RULE I. 

Words from Another Author. — A word or words 
introduced from some other author should be inclosed 
by quotation marks. 



PUNCTUATION. 211 

NOTES. 

1. It is proper for a writer to use quotation marks in introducing words 
from some other writings of his own, if the words thus introduced are in- 
tended as a citation. 

2. A writer, in quoting from himself, may use his option in regard to the 
use of quotation marks. It depends upon whether he does, or does not, 
wish to make a reference to his previous writings. We have no such op- 
tion, however, when using the words of other people. To use the words 
of others without acknowledging them to be such, is plagiarism, which is 
only another name for stealing. It is, however, a breach of the Decalogue, 
rather than of Grammar. 

3. Sometimes, in quoting from another, we wish for convenience to give 
the substance only of his meaning, but not his exact words. In such a case, 
we may show that the wording has been thus altered, by using only one 
inverted comma and one apostrophe, instead of two. Thus : The last six 
commandments are, ' Honor thy father and thy mother, Thou shalt not 
kill, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not 
bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet/ Unless we indicate in this way, 
or by express remark, that the phraseology has been altered, we should in 
quoting be careful to give the exact words of the author, especially where 
the quotation is from Holy Scripture. Any alteration whatever in the 
words inclosed in quotation marks is regarded as dishonest, unless in some 
manner we distinctly indicate that such alteration has been made. 

4. Quotation marks are not proper when we state the opinion of others 
in language of our own; as, Socrates said that he believed the soul to be 
immortal. If this expression be changed, so as to give the exact words of 
Socrates, then the quotation marks will be needed; as, Socrates said, "I 
believe the soul to be immortal." 

5. Short phrases from foreign languages are usually printed in italics, 
instead of being inclosed in quotation marks ; as, He believed in the prin- 
ciple of nil admirari. Titles and names of various kinds are sometimes 
marked in this way; as, The Tempest is regarded by some as one of Shak- 
speare's earliest plays. This practice, however, is not so much in vogue as 
it was, the tendency at present being to use, in all such cases, the quotation 
marks instead of italics. 

RULE II. 

A Quotation within a Quotation. — When a quota- 
tion incloses within it another quotation, the external 
quotation has the double marks, and the one included has 
only the single marks. Examples : — 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shalt not kill/ 
forbids many crimes besides that of murder." 

Some one has said, " What an argument for prayer is contained 
in the words, ' Our Father which art in heaven ! ' " 

RULE III. 

Consecutive Paragraphs Quoted. — When several 
consecutive paragraphs are quoted, the inverted commas 
should be placed at the beginning of each paragraph, 
but the apostrophes only at the end of the whole quota- 
tion. 

NOTES. 

1. If the several paragraphs thus quoted do not come together in the 
original, but are taken from different parts of the book or essay, each 
several paragraph should begin and end with quotation marks. 

2. If the extract forms but one paragraph, but is made up of several de- 
tached portions taken from different parts of the book or essay quoted, the 
fact that the extracts are not continuous may be shown, either by inserting 
points (. . . .) at each place where there is a break, or by inclosing each 
detached portion with quotation marks. 

3. In some publications, the inverted commas are inserted at the begin- 
ning of each line of a quotation. The London Times always punctuates in 
this way. So do some American newspapers. The practice is more com- 
mon in England than in America, but as it encumbers and disfigures the 
page without any real advantage, the tendency in both countries is towards 
the simpler method prescribed in Rule III. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. This definition oDro Latham o from whom we borrowed 
it o illustrates o in his work on the o English Language o p o 
359 o by the expression o a sharp-edged instrument o , which 
means an instrument with sharp edges. 

2. The words o all-wise o , o incense-breaking o , o book- 
seller o , and o noble-man o are compounds. 

3. o There is but one object o o says Augustine o o greater 
than the soul o and that one is its Creator o o 

4. o Let me make the ballads of a nation o o said Fletcher 
of Saltoun o o and I care not who makes the laws o o 

5. When Fenelon's library was on fire o o God be praised o o 
said he o o that it is not the dwelling of a poor man o o 



CAPITALS. 

Rule 1. First Word in a Sentence.— The first word in a 
sentence should begin with a capital. 

Rule 2. First Word of an Example.— The first word of a 
sentence or clause which is given as an example should begin 
with a capital ; as, " Temperance promotes health." 

Rule 3. First Word of a Direct Question.— The first word 
of a direct question should begin with a capital. Examples : — 

(Direct.) His words are, "Why do you not study the lesson ? " 
(Indirect.) He desires to know why you do not study the lesson. 

Rule 4. First Word of a Direct Quotation.— The first word 
of a direct quotation should begin with a capital. Examples : — 

(Direct.) Plutarch says, "Lying is the vice of slaves. ,, 
(Indirect.) Plutarch says that lying is the vice of slaves. 

Rule 5. First Word after a Period. — The first word after a 
period, except when used as an abbreviation, should begin with 
a capital. 

Rule 6. After an Interrogation. — A capital should follow 
the mark of interrogation, when equivalent to a period, as it 
usually is. 

Rule 7. Numbered Clauses. — Clauses, when separately num- 
bered, should begin with a capital, though not separated from each 
other by a period ; as, — 

This writer asserts, 1. That Nature is unlimited in her operations; 2. 
That she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; 3. That knowledge will 
always be progressive, and, 4. That all future generations will continue to 
make discoveries. 

Rule 8. Quoting Titles. — In quoting the title of a book, every 
noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb should begin with a capital; 
as, " Sparks's Life of Washington." 

Rule 9. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should always 
be capital letters. 

Rule 10. Poetry. — The first word of every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital. 

213 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Kule 11. Names of God. — All names and titles of God should 
begin with a capital ; as, Jehovah, Father, Creator, Almighty, etc. 

Note 1. When any name usually applied to the Supreme Being is used 
for a created being, it does not begin with a capital; as, '* The Lord is a 
great God above all gods." " Lord of lords." 

Note 2. Providence is sometimes used to mean God, that is, the One who 
provides for us ; Heaven likewise is used to mean the One who reigns in 
heaven. In such cases the word should begin with a capital. But if only 
God's providential care, or his place of abode is meant, a capital is not 
needed. 

Note 3. The adjectives eternal, universal, heavenly, divine, etc., when 
applied to God, need not begin with a capital, unless something in the par- 
ticular instance makes them emphatic. Custom, however, has made cap- 
itals necessary in the following instances: Almighty God, Infinite One, 
Supreme Being, First Cause. 

Note 4. When an attribute of God is expressed, not by an adjective, as 
in the instances above, but by a noun dependent upon another noun, as, 
"Father of mercies," the dependent noun in such combinations does not 
require a capital. 

Note 5. "Son of God," as applied to our Saviour, requires that both 
nouns should begin with a capital; "Son of man" requires no capital for 
the latter noun. 

Note 6. Great diversity prevails in regard to the pronouns, when refer- 
ring to God. Some authors, in printing a hymn or a prayer, make the page 
fairly bristle with capitals, every pronoun that refers in any manner to God 
being decorated in that manner. The first stage of this fancy is that which 
prints in this manner Thou, Thine, Thee. In the second stage, He, His, 
Him are thus treated. The last and highest stage shows itself in the rela- 
tive pronouns, Who, Whose, and "Whom. In the standard editions of the 
English Bible, the pronouns, when referring to God, are never printed in 
this way, not even in forms of direct address to the Deity; as, "But thou, 
Lord, be merciful unto me," etc. 

Bule 12. Proper Names. — All proper names should begin 
with capitals; as, Jupiter, Mahomet, Brahma, Pompey, Lake 
Erie, Monday, Good Friday, Rome, China, France. 

Note 1. The word devil, when used to designate Satan, should begin with 
acapitalj in all other cases, with a small letter; as, " The Devil and his 
angels." " The devils also believe and tremble." 

Note 2. The same persons who capitalize the first letter of the pronouns 
when referring to God, capitalize the first letter of heaven and hell when 
referring to the abodes of the blessed and of the lost. But such is not the 
usage in the Bible, which is the most carefully printed book in the language. 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

"If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there: if I make my bed in hell, 
behold, thou art there." 

Note 3. North, South t East, and West, when used to denote certain parts 
of the country or of the world, should begin with a capital; as, "This man 
evidently is a native of the West." But when they denote merely geograph- 
ical direction, they should begin with a small letter; as, "Ohio lies west of 
the AUeghanies." 

Note 4. When a name is compounded of a proper noun and of some other 
word which is not a proper noun, connected by a hyphen, the part which is 
not a proper noun begins with a capital, if it precedes the hyphen, but with 
a small letter, if it follows the hyphen; as, Pre-Adamite, New-England, 
Sunday-school. 

Rule 13. Words derived from Proper Names. — Words 
derived from proper names should begin with a capital; as, 
Mahometan, Brahmin, Christian, Roman ; French, Spanish, 
Grecian; to Christianize, to Judaize, to Romanize, etc. 

Note 1. The names of religious sects, whether derived from proper names 
or otherwise, begin with a capital ; as, Christians, Pagans, Jews, Gentiles, 
Lutherans, Calvinists, Protestants, Catholics, etc. The names of political 
parties likewise begin with capitals; as, Democrats, Republicans, Radicals, 
Conservatives, etc. 

Note 2. Some words, derived originally from proper names, have by long 
and familiar usage lost all reference to their origin, and are printed like 
ordinary words, without capitals; as, simony, damask, jalap, godlike, phil- 
ippic, to hector, to galvanize, to japan, etc. 

Rule 14. Titles of Honor and Office.— Titles of honor and 
office should begin with a capital ; as, The President of the United 
States, His Honor the Mayor of Philadelphia, President Madison, 
Queen Victoria, Sir Robert Murchison, Your Royal Highness, etc. 

Note. — The term father, when used to denote one of the early Christian 
writers, is always printed with a capital; as, " Chrysostom and Augustine 
are among the most voluminous of the Fathers." 

Rule 15. Subjects first introduced. — In works of a scientific 
character, when the subject of a particular section is defined, or 
is first introduced, it begins with a capital ; as, " A Pronoun is a 
word used instead of a noun." 

Rule 16. The Bible. — A capital is always used for the terms 
ordinarily employed to designate the Bible, or any particular part 
or book of the Bible ; as, The Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the Old Testament, the Acts of the Apostles, the Revelation, etc. 
In like manner, a capital is used in giving the names of other 
sacred writings, as the Koran, the Zend A vesta, the Puranas, etc. 

Rule 17. Words of Special Importance. — Words describ- 
ing the great events of history, or extraordinary things of any 
kind, which have acquired a distinctive name, begin with a 
capital ; as, the Reformation, the Revolution, the war of Inde- 
pendence, the Middle Ages, Magna Charta, the Gulf Stream, etc. 

Rule 18. Personification. — In cases of strongly marked per- 
sonification, the noun personified should begin with a capital ; 
as, — 

"Hope for a season bade the world farewell, 
And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell." 

Note. — This rule, like that in regard to words of special importance, 
requires discretion on the part of the writer. Young and inexperienced 
writers are prone to apply it too frequently. 

Miscellaneous Examples for Practice. 

[Punctuate the following sentences, and make the necessary corrections 
in regard to capitals, giving your reasons for each alteration.] 

1. Charles notwithstanding the delay had left england to work 
his way as best he might out of his Difficulties 

2. the scots therefore at the break of day entered the Castle 

3. Fashion is for the most part the ostentation of Riches, 

4. besides if you labor in moderation it will conduce to Health 
as well as to Wealth 

5. Sir Peter Carew for some unknown reason had written to 
ask for his pardon 

6. The Man when He saw this departed 

7. Elizabeth who had been requested to attend was not present 

8. The frost had set in the low damp ground was hard the 
Dykes were frozen 

9. she thought the isle that gave her birth 

the sweetest mildest land on earth 

10. Give me a sanctified and just a charitable and humble a 
religious and contented spirit 

11. The ocelot a beautiful and striped fiend hisses like a snake 

12. Well Sir Nicholas what news ) 

13. Zaccheus make haste and come down 



PUNCTUATION. 217 

14. The conspiracy being crushed without bloodshed an inquiry 
into its origin could be carried out at leisure 

15. Thus preciously freighted the Spanish fleet sailed from 
Corunna 

16. Cruel and savage as the Persecution had become it was 
still inadequate 

17. Faith is opposed to infidelity hope to despair charity to 
enmity and hostility 

18. Elizabeth threw herself in front of Marie Antoinette ex- 
claiming I am the queen! 

19. Kant said give me matter and I will build the world 

20. Whatever happens Mary exclaims Elizabeth I am the wife 
of the Prince of Spain crown rank life all shall go before I will 
take any other husband. 

21. In this way we learned that miss Steele never succeeded in 
catching the doctor that Kitty Bennett was satisfactorily married 
by a clergyman near Pemberton that the " considerable sum " 
given by Mrs. Norris to William Price was one pound and that 
the letters placed by Churchill before Jane Fairfax which she 
swept away unread contained the word pardon 

22. Ars in latin is the contrary of in-ers it is the contrary of in- 
action it is action 

23. there are five moods the indicative the potential the sub- 
junctive the imperative and the infinitive 

24. Princes have courtiers „ and merchants have partners the 
voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices 
none but the virtuous have friends 

25. in his last Moments He uttered these words i fall a sacrifice 
to sloth and luxury 

26. Bacon Francis usually known as Lord bacon was born in 
London England Jan 22 1560 and died 1626 he was famous as a 
scholar a wit a lawyer a judge a statesman a politician but chiefly 
as a philosopher 

19 





Index. 



Absolute Plirase, 176. 

Active, a distinction of voice, not of 

verbs, 65. 
Adjective, 40-44; true difference be- 
tween the adjective and the noun, 

41 ; its syntax, 186. 
Adjective Phrase, 175. 
Adjective Pronoun, 53; its syntax, 

139. 
Adjuncts to Predicate, 169. 
Adjuncts to Subject, 163. 
Adverb, 85-88 ; its syntax, 114. 
Adverbial Clause, 176. 
Affixes, 99. 

Alphabet, origin of the name, 12. 
Analysis, definition and division of 

the subject, 161. 
Apposition, 124. 
Appositional Clause, 176. 
Appositional Phrase, 173. 
Aristotle^ author of the division of 

letters into vowels, semi-vowels, and 

consonants, 12. 
Article, 22-24 ; origin and uses of a and 

the, 23 ; its syntax, 133. 
Auxiliary Verbs, 72. 

Drachets, 208. 

Capitals, 179; rules for their use, 213. 
Case Absolute, 103; how punctuated, 

188. 
Case Independent, 103, 188. 
Case, of nouns, 36. 
Clause, 101, 163, 176. 
Colon, 194. 



Comma, 180. 

Comparison of adjectives, 41. 

Complex Predicates, 109. 

Complex Sentences, 101, 174. 

Complex Subjects, 163. 

Compound Personal Pronouns, 47. 

Compound Predicates, 172. 

Compound Helatives, 50. 

Compound Sentences, 102, 179. 

Compound Subjects, 167. 

Comjiound Tenses, their true char- 
acter, 73. 

Compound Words, their plurals, 33. 

Conditional Clauses, how punctu- 
ated, 183. 

Conjugation, the verb to be, 74-76; 
the verb to love, 78-84. 

Conjunction, 88 ; its syntax, 149. 

Conjunctional Clause, 176. 

Consonants, 14. 

Dash, 202. 

Declarative Sentences, 173. 
Defective Verbs, 72. 
Degrees of Comparison, 41. 
Demonstrative Pronouns, 53. 
Dentals, 14. 

Dependent Clauses, how punctu- 
ated, 183. 
Derivation, of words, 96. 
Diphthongs, 13. 
Dissyllable, definition, 15. 
Distributive Pronouns, 53. 

Elocutionary Pauses, 204. 
Emphatic Form, of the verb, 63. 
218 



INDEX. 



219 



Etymology, 21-100; origin of the 
name, 21; definition and division 
of the subject, 21. 

Exclamation, 200. 

Foreign Words, their plurals, 33. 

(render, of noun.s, 26; peculiar 

s [ish in regard to gender, 27. 
(Jrfintinar, definition and divisions 

of thi 
(grammatical Predicate, 168. 
(irammatical Subject, 102. 
Greek, prefixes, 08. 
Gutturals, 14. 

Imperative Sentences, 173. 
Impersonal, verbs, 71. 
Indefinite Pronouns, 54. 
Independent Phrase, 176. 
Infinitive Mood, Its syntax, 147. 
Infinitive Phrase, Yi~j. 
Interjections, 93. 
Intermediate Expressions, how 

punctuated. 182. 
Interrogation, 199. 
Interrogative Pronouns, 51. 
Interrogative Sentences, 173. 
Irregular, vert 
Js building, is it correct? 63. 

Labials, 14. 

latin, prefixes, 07. 

letter*, definition, 11; divisions, 12. 

Unguals, 14. 

Logical 'Predicate, 103. 

Logical Subject, 102. 

Member, of a sentence, 102, 176. 
Monosyllable, definition, 15. 
Mood, of verbs, 07. 
Mutes, 14. 

Nominative, its relation to the 

Nouns, 24-40: definition ar, 

tion, 20; attribufc _ 

. ; person, 35; I 
Number, of nouns. 30 ; mo 1 

ing the plurals, 30-34; irregular 

plurals, 32; plural of compounds 

and of foreign word. 
Numerals, 41. 

Object Clause, 170. 



Objective, governed by verb, 112; by 
preposition, 115. 

O r < A ograp)t,y, 1 1-20. 

palatals, 14. 

Parenthesis, 207. 

Parenthetical Expressions, how 

punctual-;'. 

Participial Phrase, 170. 

Participles, 62; true character of the 
past participle active, 63; their syn- 
tax, 141. 

Period, 106. 

personal Pronouns, 40. 

Person, of noun 

Phrase, 101, 103, 170. 

Plural, of nouns, modes of forming it, 
31; irregular plurals, 32; plurals 
of compounds, and of foreign words, 
33. 

Polysyllable, definition, 10. 

Possessive Case, of nouns. 37-30: ori- 
gin and true character of the English 
j atax, 120. 

Predicate, 101, 108. 

Prefixes, 06. 

Prepositional Phrase, 170. 

Preposition, 90 : Us government of the 
objective, 110; arjpropriate use of, 
117. 

Primitive, word 

Progressive form, of the verb 

Pronouns, 44-00; sense in which the 
pronoun stands in stead of the noun, 
44; syntax, 128; Personal, 45; Rela- 
tive, 4't ; Ad 

Prosody, belonging to Rhetoric rather 
than grammar, 10. 

Punctuation, belonging properly to 
Orthography, 11 ; Rules of, 170. 

Quotation Marks, 210. 

Hegulav, 

Relative, its syntax, 130. 
Relative Clause, 17,: how puncto- 
. 181. 
(litre Pronouns. 
Responsive Pronouns, 01. 

Saxon, prefixes 

' - mtcolon, 

Se mi-vowels, 1 L 

fe >iee9, 101, 10L 
£ea;, niodeo of distinguishing - 



220 



INDEX. 



Shall; its use as a part of the future 
tense, 61 ; its true force as an aux- 
iliary, 73; difference between shall 
and will, 76. 

Simple Predicates, 168. 

Simple Sentences, 101, 174. 

Simple Subjects, 163. 

Spelling, 15 ; Rules of, 16-20. 

Strong Conjugation, 66. 

Subject^ of a sentence, 101, 164. 

Subject Clause, 176. 

Subject Phrase, 175. 

Subjunctive mood, its uses, 77. 

Syllables, definition, 15. 

Syntax, 101-162. 

Tense, of verbs, 58. 

That, its different uses, 49, 95 ; its syn- 
tax, 129. 

The more, the less, origin of the con- 
struction, 134. 

To, sign of the infinitive, not to be sep- 
arated by intervening words, 147. 



To be, case of the noun after it, 122. 
Transitive, verbs, 64. 
Triphthongs, 13. 
Trisyllable, definition, 15. 



Verbs, 55-84 ; true ground of its defini- 
tion, 85; attributes, 56-64; voice, 
56; classes, 64-74; conjugation, 74- 
84; agreement with its nominative, 
106; government of the objective, 
112. 

Vowels, 13. 



Webster, on doubling the final Z, 19. 

What, not a compound relative, 48. 

Worcester, on doubling the final I 19. 

Words, definition of, 15 ; classification 
of, 21; derivation, 96; used as dif- 
ferent parts of speech, 94. 

Worth, is it a preposition ? 116. 





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A SHORT COURSE IN LITERATURE, AMERICAN AND ENGLISH. 

A Text-Book for Schools. By Prof. John S. Hart. Price, $1.50. 

/\ MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. A Text-Book for High 
Schools, Academies, and Colleges. By Prof. John S. Hart, 
LL.D. Price, $2.50. 

A MANUAL OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. A Text-Book for High 

Schools, Academies, and Colleges. By Prof. John S. Hart, 
LL.D. Price, $2.50. 



JHE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ForSchools, 

with Questions under each Clause. By Prof. John S. Hart, 
LL.D. Should be .taught in every school. Price, 60 cents. 

j\H ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. A Text-Book for Schools and 
Academies. By Joseph W. Wilson, A.M., Professor of Mathe- 
matics in the Philadelphia Central High School. Price, $1.25. 

KEY TO WILSON'S ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. For the use of 

Teachers only. Price, $1.25. 

JHE CRITTENDEN COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC AND BUSINESS 

MANUAL. Designed for the use of Teachers, Business Men, 
Academies, High Schools, and Commercial Colleges. By Prof. 
John Groesbeck. Price, $1.50. 
[(EY TO CRITTENDEN COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. For the use 

of Teachers only. Price, $1.00. 

A MANUAL OF ELOCUTION. Founded on the Philosophy of 
the Human Voice, with Classified Illustrations. By M. S. 
Mitchell. Price, $1.50. 

THE MODEL DEFINER. A Book for Beginners, containing Defi- 
nitions, Etymology, and Sentences as Models, exhibiting the 
correct use of Words. By A. C. Webb. Price, 25 cents. 

THE MODEL ETYMOLOGY. Containing Definitions, Etymology, 
Sentences as Models, and Analysis. With a Key containing the 
Analysis of every Avord which could present any difficulties to 
the learner. By A. C. Webb. Price, 60 cents. 

THE MODEL SPEAKER. Consisting of Exercises in Prose and 
Poetry, Suitable for Declamation, Public Readings, &c. Com- 
piled for the use of Schools and Academies, by Prof. Philip 
Lawrence. Price, $1.50. 

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. A Text-Book for 

Schools, Academies, Colleges, and Families. By Joseph C. 
Martindale, M.D. Price, Si. 30. 

piRST LESSONS IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. For Beginners. 
By Joseph C. Martindale, M.D. Price, 60 cents. 

^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. From the Discovery of 
America to the present time. By Joseph C. Martindale, 
M.D. Price, 60 cents. 

JHE YOUNG STUDENT'S COMPANION; or, Elementary Lessons 
and Exercises in Translating from English into French. By 
M. A. Longstreth. Price, $1.00. 



JABLES OF LATIN SUFFIXES. Designed as an Aid to the Study 
of the Latin Grammar. By Amos N. Currier, A.M., Professor 
of Latin in the University of Iowa. Price, 50 cents. 

JHREE THOUSAND PRACTICE WORDS. By Prof. J. Willis 
Westlake, A.M., State Normal School, Millersville, Pa. 
Contains lists of Familiar Words often Misspelled, Difficult 
Words, Homophonous Words, Words often Confounded, Kules 
for Spelling, &c. It is a book that every teacher wants. Hand- 
somely bound in flexible cloth, crimson edges. Price, 50 cents. 

IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM ; or, Chapters in the Philosophy of 
Education. Gives the experience of nearly forty years spent 
in school-room work. By John S. Hart, LL.D. Price, $1.25. 

gOOK-KEEPING BLANKS. Consisting of six blank books as follows: 
Day Book, Cash Book, Ledger, Journal, Bill Book, and Book for 
Miscellaneous Exercises. Price, 15 cents each. 

THE MODEL POCKET REGISTER AND GRADE-BOOK. A Roll- 

Book, Record, and Grade-Book combined. Adapted to all 
grades of Classes, whether in College, Academy, Seminary, 
High or Primary School. Handsomely bound in fine English 
cloth, bevelled sides, crimson edges. Price, 65 cents. 

THE MODEL SCHOOL DIARY. Designed as an aid in securing the 

co-operation of parents. It consists of a Record of the Attend- 
ance, Deportment, Recitations, &c, of the Scholar for every day. 
At the close of the week it is to be sent to the parent or guardian 
for his examination and signature. Price, per dozen, $1.05. 

JHE MODEL MONTHLY REPORT. Similar to the Model School 

Diary, excepting that it is intended for a Monthly instead of a 

Weekly report of the Attendance, Recitations, etc., of the pupil. 

Price, per dozen, $1.05. 

Copies of the above will be sent by mail, post-paid, to any address, 

on receipt of the advertised prices. Circulars, giving full descriptive 

notices of our publications, will be sent to any address on application. 

Please address 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 

No. 17 North Seventh Street, 

PHILADELPHIA, PA. 







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